UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA

College of Science and Technology

Module ETE 4261:

Computer Networks
Fourth year
Semester I: 2017-2018

Lecturer: Dr. Louis Sibomana

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 Course Description
Course objective:

 To provide the broad coverage of data

communications and computer networks related
topics
 This course covers the topics of network
models and architecture, interfacing and
communication, and IP addressing

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 Course Description
During the course, you will learn:

 Basics of data communication

 Various types of computer networks
 Key devices such as hub, switch, router
 Layered communication architectures and
protocols (OSI and TCP/IP)
 Interent Protocol (IP address)

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 Course Description
Learning outcome:

 Understand the principles of computer

communications with emphasis on the roles played by
different layers;
 Describe different transmission media
 Understand operation principles of common local area
networks and communication protocols;
 Describe and use of common Internet applications

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 Course Grading
 Attendance & Participation
Attendance and participation are required. It is highly recommended
that students attend lectures to ask questions
 Assignments
All assignments must be submitted by deadlines given in class. No
late assignment will be accepted. Plagiarism is not permitted.
 Grading
o CAT ( 50%)
 Assignment and Labs: 25 %
 Attendance and participation: 5 points (80% of
attendance)
 Mid term exam : 20 % ( Date to be announced in class)
o Final exam (FAT): 50 %
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 Course References

 The course in mainly based on the following books:

1.J.F. Kurose and K. W. Ross, ´´Computer Networking: A

Top-Down Approach ’’, sixth edition, Pearson, 2013
2.L. L. Peterson and B. S. Davie, ´´Computer Networks: A
systems Approach’’, Third edition, Elsevier, 2003
3.Behrouz A. Forouzan: ´´Data Communication and
Networking`` 4th Edition, 2007
4.A. Leon-Garcia & I. Widjaja: ´´ Communication
Networks: Fundamental Concepts and Key Architecture``
2001

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

What is a computer?

 An electronic device which is capable of receiving

information (data) in a particular form and of performing a
sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined
but variable set of procedural instructions (program) to
produce a result in the form of information or signals

 Information: voice, video, data

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

What is computer network?

 A network is any collection of independent computers
that communicate with one another over a shared network
medium /communication lines.
 A computer network is a collection of two or more
connected computers.

 When these computers are joined in a network, people

can share files and peripherals such as modems, printers,
tape backup drives, or CD-ROM drives

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

What is computer network?

A communication system for connecting computers/hosts.

 A computer network is a number of computers ( also
known as nodes) connected by some communication
lines

 Some of the nodes in the network may not be

computers at all but they are network devices (like
switches, routers etc.) to facilitate the communication

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

What is computer network?

Every network includes:

 At least two computers: Server or Client workstation
 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
 A connection medium: wire or cable, wireless
communication between networked computers and
peripherals
 Network Operating system software, such as
Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, Novell NetWare, Unix
and Linux

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

What is computer network?

Advantages of Computer Network

 Better communication
 Better connectivity
 Better sharing of resources
 Bring people together

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Advantages of network

 Network supports the way we live: computer

networks have evolved to carry voice, video streams, text
and graphics between many different types of devices

Examples of todays social interaction popular

communication tools:
1. Instant messaging, 2. Weblogs
3. wikis, 4. Podcasting,
5. Collaboration tools 6. Facebook,
7. Twitter, 8. Instagram,
9. what’s app, etc…. 12
 Lecture #1: Introduction

Advantages of network

 Network supports the way we learn: communication,

collaboration and engagement are fundamental building blocks
of education
Traditional learning process are limited in type of formal and
the timing of the presentation: Text book, Instructor

In contrast, on-line courses can contain voice, data, and video,

and are available to the students at any time from any place.
These remove geographic barriers and improved student
opportunity.

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Advantages of network

 Network supports the way we work:

Remote access: Business application can be accessed
remotely as if employees were on site
 Multiple resources: workers in any location can reach
each other and access multiple resources on the network

 Network supporting the way we play:

On-line games

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

What is data communication?

o By communicating, we share information (data)

o Data communications are the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium such as
a wire cable or wireless
o Data itself may represent a wide range of information
such as:
the contents of a computer file, a digitized signal
representing an image in a webcam system, telemetry
measurements sent from a remote site to a central
base for monitoring and control purposes.
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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data communication components

o A data communications system has five components.

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data communication components

 Message : the information (data) to be communicated.
Examples of information include text, numbers,
pictures, audio, and video.
 Sender: the device that sends the data message. It can be
a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video
camera
 Receiver: the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television
 Transmission medium: the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver.
Protocol: a set of rules that govern data communications

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data communication

 For data communications to occur, the communicating

devices must be part of a communication system made up of
a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs)

 Protocols and standards are vital to the implementation

of data communications and networking.
 Protocols refer to the rules
 Standard is a protocol that has been adopted by
vendors and manufacturers.

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data communication

Three forces are driving the evolution of data communications

and networking
1.Growth of communication traffic
 Voice traffic: telephone
 Data traffic: Internet access, video conferencing
Challenges (to the network service providers): how to
maximize the capacity and minimize the cost?
2.Development of new services
3.Advances in technology: Faster and cheaper computing and
communications

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

A communication model

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Key Elements of the communications model:

Source: generates information (called data) to be sent (i.e.,

transmitted). Examples are telephones and personal computers
Transmitter (Tx): converts data into transmittable signals.
That is, transforms and encodes the information in such a way
as to produce electro magnetic signals that can be transmitted
across some sort of transmission system.
Transmission system:
Carries data (information)
 It can be a single transmission line or a complex network
connecting source and destination.

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Key Elements of the communications model:

Receiver (Rx):
 converts received signal into data
 The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission
system and converts it into a form that can be handled by
the destination device

Destination:
 Takes the incoming data from the receiver.

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

A simplified communications model:

Assume the source and destination are personal computers (PC).

The source wishes to send a message m to the destination

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data representation

 Text
 Numbers
 Images
 Audio
 Video

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data representation

Text: is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits, which

represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the
process of representing symbols is called coding.

The prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32

bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in
the world. For example, the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII) constitutes the first 127
characters in Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data representation

 Number: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.

However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent
numbers. The number is directly converted to a binary
number to simplify mathematical operations
 Audio: refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or
music. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or
images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a
microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal,
we create a continuous signal
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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data representation

Images: are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest

form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture
elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or
10,000 pixels.
In the second case, there is a better representation of the
image (better resolution), but more memory is needed to
store the image.

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data representation

 Video:
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture
or movie.
Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g.,
by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of
motion.
Again video can be changed to a digital or an analog
signal

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Data Flow: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Data Flow
Simplex: the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Example: Broadcast networks
 Half-duplex: each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can
only receive, and vice versa. Walkie-talkies radios are half-
duplex systems
 Full-duplex: both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. Example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone or mobile network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at
the same time. 30
 Lecture #1: Introduction

Key Communications Tasks

• Transmission system
• Error detection and
utilization (multiplexing)
correction
• Interfacing
• Addressing
• Signal generation (coding)
• Routing
• Synchronization between
transmitter and receiver • Recovery
• Exchange management • Message formating
(connection management) • Security
• Flow control • Network management

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Key Communications Tasks

Transmission system utilization

– Efficient use of Tx facilities, e.g., multiplexing, congestion
control
 Interfacing
– Electromagnetic signals propagated over the Tx medium
 Signal Generation
– Signal must be capable of being propagated through the Tx
system
– Signal must be interpretable as data at the Rx
 Synchronization
– Between Tx and Rx
– Rx should determine when a signal begins to arrive, when it
ends, and its duration 32
 Lecture #1: Introduction
Key Communications Tasks

Exchange Management
o e.g., if data are exchanged in both directions
o Must be decided whether both devices may transmit
simultaneously or in turns, the amount and format of data, etc
Error detection and correction: Errors may occur (Tx signals may be
distorted before reaching the Rx)
Flow control
o To assure that the source does not overwhelm the destination
by sending data faster than they can be processed by the Rx
Addressing and routing
oWhen more than two devices share a Tx facility, a source
system must indicate the identity of the intended destination. The
Tx system must assure that only the destination system receives33
the data
 Lecture #1: Introduction
Key Communications Tasks

 Recovery
o To resume activity in case of interruption during info exchange
 Formatting
o Agreement to the form of data to be exchanged
 Security
oThe sender of data wants to be assured that only the intended
receiver actually receives the data
 Network Management
o For system configuration
o Monitoring the system status
o Planning
o Alarm reporting and troubleshooting
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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Communications Aspect

 The Transmission of information:

 Transmission media: twisted-pair, coaxial cables, fiber
optic, wireless,..
 Antennas: dipole, yagi-uda, dish (parabolic) , microstrip,..
 Communication techniques:
Encoding : source, channel
Modulation: Analog, Digital
 Transmission efficiency:
Capacity issue: Multiplexing, compression,...
Data rate ...

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Communications Aspect

 Transmission of Information
 One basic choice facing a business user is the selection of
transmission medium !
Within the business premise: Completely up to the business
 Long-distance communications: Up to the long-distance carrier
Technologies: Wired versus wireless?
Wired (e.g., coaxial cables, optical fiber transmission)
Wireless transmission (e.g., Microwave, Satellite, radio)
Question:
Assume a business man wishes to interconnect north and south
regions (e.g., Musanze to Huye). As expert, discuss which
transmission medium to suggest

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Network criteria

The most important network criteria are performance,

reliability, and security
Performance: can be measured in many ways and depends
on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type
of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected
hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking
metrics: throughput and delay
Question:
What happens (throughput or delay) when we send more data
on the network ?
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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Network criteria

 Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network

reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time
it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
 Reliability is a critical factor, especially for
businesses that rely on networking technology

Question:
If you are a network manager for a company, how will you
increase the reliability of your company’s network
connection?
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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Network criteria

 Security: Network security issues include protecting

data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses

Question:
If you are a network security engineer, discuss the network
vulnerabilities and strategies for securing the network

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Examples of types of network

 LAN: local area network

• private owned networks
• typical span short distance: single building, campus
•Ethernet, Token ring, star, wireless
 MAN: Metropolitan area network
• The communication infrastructures that have been
developed in and around large cities
•Radio, Microwave, Satellite
 WAN: Wide area network
• connects two or more LANs over a potentially large
geographic distance
•Telephone, ISDN, ATM, etc 40
 Lecture #1: Introduction

Examples of types of network

 LAN: local area network

 WAN: Wide area network

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Physical structure

• Type of Connection
 Point to Point: single transmitter and receiver
 Multipoint: multiple recipients of single transmission

• Physical Topology
 Connection of devices; the way in which a network is
laid out physically
 Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Physical structure
• Type of Connection

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Physical structure
Physical topology : Examples of network topologies
(more details, Lecture 2)

Questions
1. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each topology
2. Is it possible to use a topology alone or to combine
different topologies in a network? 44
 Lecture #1: Introduction

Physical structure

• Physical Topology
 Modes/Types of communication:
o unicast: the process of sending a packet from one host
to an individual host
o mulitcast: the process of sending a packet from one
host to all hosts in the network
o broadcast: the process of sending a packet from one
host to a selected group of hosts

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Physical topology:
Modes of communication

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Physical topology:
Modes of communication:

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Protocol

 A protocol is synonymous with rule

 It consists of a set of rules that govern data
communications.
 It determines what is communicated, how it is
communicated and when it is communicated.
 The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and
timing

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Elements of a Protocol:

 Syntax
 Data structure or format
 Indicates how to read the bits: signal level
 Semantics
 Interprets the meaning of the bits and control
information
 Error handling
 Timing
 Speed matching
 sequencing
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 Lecture #1: Introduction

The Need for Protocol Architecture

 A protocol is a set of rules or conventions that allow
peer layers to communicate
To transfer data several tasks are performed:
1)The source must activate the communications path or
inform network of destination
2)The source must make sure that destination is prepared to
receive data
3)The file transfer application on the source must confirm
file management program at destination is prepared to
accept and store the file
4) A format translation function may need to be performed
if the formats on the systems differ 50
 Lecture #1: Introduction

Protocol Architecture Logic

 Logic is divided into subtask modules

 Implemented separately
 Modules are arranged in a vertical stack
 Each layer in the stack performs a subset of
functions
 Rely on next layer for more primitive functions
 Changes in one layer should not require changes in
other layers

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
A simple Protocol Architecture
 Task of communication broken up into modules
 For example file transfer could use three modules
 File transfer application
 Communication service module
 Network access module

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Operational of Protocol Architecture

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Standards

 Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,

government agencies, and other service providers to ensure
the interconnectivity/interoperability in today's
marketplace and in international communications

 Two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by

convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by
regulation").
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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Standards

 De facto: Standards that have not been approved by an

organized body but have been adopted as standards through
widespread use. De facto standards are often established
originally by manufacturers who seek to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.

 De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an

officially recognized body

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

A Standardized Protocol Architecture

 Required for devices to communicate

 Vendors have more marketable products
 Customers can insist on standards based equipment

 Two standards:
 OSI (open system interconnection) Reference model
o A theoretical system
 TCP/IP protocol suite
o Most widely used
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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Elements of Standardization

 Protocolspecification
 Operates between the same layer on two systems
 May involve different operating system
 Protocol specification must be precise
 Format of data units
 Semantics of all fields
 allowable sequence of PCUs
 Service definition
 Functional description of what is provided
 Addressing
Referenced by SAPs (service access points)
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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Internet

 Developed to solve the dilemma of communicating across

arbitrary, multiple, packet-switched network

Communication between networks is called

internetworking

The Internet, as we know it today, is essentially the

ultimate wide-area network, spanning the entire globe

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Internet
 Interconnections of different networks

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Internet

 Question: Who owns the Internet?

Well, nobody does. No single person or company owns the

Internet or even controls it entirely.

As a wide-area network, it is made up of many smaller

networks. These smaller networks are often owned and
managed by a person or organization.
The Internet, then, is really defined by how connections can
be made between these networks. 60
 Lecture #1: Introduction

Internet connections

 Internet backbone: A set of high-speed networks that

carry Internet traffic
These networks are provided by companies such as
KTRN, Liquid Telecom, etc

 Internet service provider (ISP) : A company that

provides other companies or individuals with access to the
Internet. For example, BSC, ISPA

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 Lecture #1: Introduction

Internet connections
Various technologies available to connect a home computer to
the Internet
 A phone modem converts computer data into an analog
audio signal for transfer over a telephone line, and then a
modem at the destination converts it back again into data
 A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper
phone lines to transfer digital data to and from the phone
company’s central office
 A cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV
signals come in on to transfer the data back and forth 62
 Lecture #1: Introduction

Internet connections
Various technologies available to connect a home computer to
the Internet
 Broadband : A connection in which transfer speeds are faster
than 128 bits per second
 DSL connections and cable modems are broadband
connections
The speed for downloads (getting data from the Internet to
your home computer) may not be the same as uploads
(sending data from your home computer to the Internet)

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Internet elements:
 The purpose of the Internet is to interconnect end systems, called
hosts such as PCs, servers, notebooks, PDAs, smart phones, etc.
 Most hosts that use the Internet are connected to a network, such as
a LAN or a WAN
 Networks are in turn connected by routers. Each router attaches to
two or more networks.
 A host may send data to another host anywhere on the Internet:
The source host breaks the data into a sequence of packets,
called IP packets, or IP datagrams.
 Each packet includes the unique numeric addresses of the
source host and destination host, called IP addresses.
 Based on the destination IP address, each packet travels through
a series of routers and networks from source to destination
 Each router, upon receiving an IP packet, makes a routing
decision and forwards the packet along its way to the destination.
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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Internet Architecure:

Internet is made up of thousands of overlapping

hierarchical networks
 Individual hosts and LANs are connected to an Internet
Service Provider (ISP) through a Point of Presence (POP).
 Customer Premises Equipment (CPE): the
communications equipment located onsite with the host,
such as the modem
 Different levels of ISPs:
Local ISP, Regional ISP, Backbone ISP
 Backbone ISPs may be connected through the Network
Access Point (NAP)
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Hierarchical organization of the Internet

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Open Systems

 Proprietary system: A system that uses technologies kept

private by a particular commercial vendor
One system couldn’t communicate with another,
leading to the need for Interoperability
The ability of software and hardware on multiple machines
and from multiple commercial vendors to communicate
Leading to Open systems
 Systems based on a common model of network
architecture and a suite of protocols used in its
implementation

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 Lecture #1: Introduction
Reading Activities:

1)Features of different categories of network topologies as

well as their advantages and disadvantages
2)Network performance metrics
3)Standardization organizations: committes, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.
4)Internet: development history and standards

Make five groups to discuss the above topics. Summarize

into five pages. Submit your report next week on 17
October 2017
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