Muslima Zahan, PhD

Associate Professor
Department of Management
 Descriptive research
 It is the most widely-used research design as
indicated by the theses, dissertations, and
research reports of any institutions.
 Its common means of obtaining information
include the use of questionnaire, personal
interview, and observation.
 It gives meaning to the quality and standing of
facts
 Descriptive research is designed for the
investigator to gather information about present
existing conditions.
 It involves collection of data in order to test the
hypothesis or to answer the questions concerning
the current status of the subject.
 It determines and report the way things are. It has
no control over what is and it can only measure
what exists.
 The principal aims in employing descriptive research
are to describe the nature of a situation as it exists at
the time of the study and to explore the causes the
particular phenomenon (Travers, 1978)
 It contributes in the formation of principles and
generalization in behavioral science
 It gives better and deeper understanding on the basis
of an in-depth study
 It contributes in the establishment of standards,
norms, behavior and performance.
 What are the characteristics of descriptive
research?
 Quantitative Research: Descriptive research is quantitative
in nature as it attempts to collect information and
statistically analyze it. ...
 Nature of variables: ...
 Cross-sectional studies: ...
 Directs future research
 It makes some types of comparison, contrasts,
coorelation and cause-effect relashipships
 Six steps
 Identify problems
 Review literature
 Select participants and instrument
 Collect valid and reliable data
 Analyze and interpretation
 Report conclusion and future research
 Classified by how data are collected
 Self report (survey)
 Individual response to statements or quesitons about them
 Observation
 Data is collected by the researcher watching them
 respondents
 People who verbally answer an interviewer’s
questions or provide answers to written questions.
 sample survey
 A more formal term for a survey.
 Errors in survey (Exhibit 9.1)
 Random Sampling Error (chance variation)
 Systematic error (bias; imperfect aspect)
 Respondent error
 Administrative error
 structured question
 A question that imposes a limit on the number of allowable
responses
 unstructured question
 A question that does not restrict the respondents’ answers
 undisguised questions
 Straightforward questions that assume the respondent is
willing to answer.
 disguised questions
 Indirect questions that assume the purpose of the study must be
hidden from the respondent.
 cross-sectional study
 A study in which various segments of a population are sampled
and data are collected at a single moment in time.
 longitudinal study
 A survey of respondents at different times, thus allowing
analysis of response continuity and changes over time.
 The SAT and ACT college entrance exams once were completely multiple choice, but both tests recently began
including an essay portion (which is optional for the ACT). Some researchers have investigated how the essay
tests are used by one group they serve: the admissions offices of the colleges that look at test results during the
selection process.17
 Early survey research suggests that some admissions officers harbor doubts about the essay tests. ACT, Inc.
reported that among the schools it surveyed, only about one-fifth are requiring that applicants take the writing
portion of the exam. Another one-fifth merely recommend (but don’t require) the essay.
 Kaplan, Inc., which markets test preparation services, conducted surveys as well. Kaplan asked 374 colleges
whether they would be using the SAT writing test in screening candidates. Almost half (47 percent) said they
would not use the essay at all. Another 22 percent said they would use it but give it less weight than the math
and verbal SAT scores.
 Kaplan also surveys students who take the exams for which it provides training. On its website, the company
says, “More than 25 percent of students ran out of time on the essay!”
 Questions
 1. What survey objectives would ACT have in asking colleges how they use its essay test? What objectives
would Kaplan have for its survey research?
 2. If you were a marketer for the College Board (the SAT’s company) or ACT, Inc., what further information
would you want to gather after receiving the results described here?
 3. What sources of error or response bias might be present in the surveys described here?
 personal interview
 Face-to-face communication in which an interviewer asks
a respondent to answer questions.
 door-to-door interviews
 Personal interviews conducted at respondents’ doorsteps
in an effort to increase the participation rate in the survey.
 Telephone/cell phone interviews
 Personal interviews conducted by telephone, the mainstay
of commercial survey research.
 self-administered questionnaires
 Surveys in which the respondent takes the responsibility for reading
and answering the questions.
 mail survey
 A self-administered questionnaire sent to respondents through the
mail.
 e-mail surveys
 Surveys distributed through electronic mail.
 Internet survey
 A self-administered questionnaire posted on a website.
 response rate
 The number of questionnaires returned or completed divided by the
number of eligible people who were asked to participate in the
survey.
 observation
 The systematic process of recording the behavioral patterns of
people, objects, and occurrences as they are witnessed.

 Observation becomes a tool for scientific inquiry when it

meets several conditions:
 The observation serves a formulated research purpose.
 The observation is planned systematically.
 The observation is recorded systematically and related to
general propositions, rather than simply reflecting a set of
interesting curiosities.
 The observation is subjected to checks or controls on validity
and reliability.
 Exihibit 11.1, page 237
 Physical action: workers movement
 Verbal behavior: statement of airline travellers
 Expresive behavior: facial expressions, tones
 Temporal patterns: length of time for operation
 Physical Objects: percent of materials
 Verbal and pictorial records: no of illustrations
 visible observation
 Observation in which the observer's presence is known to
the subject.
 hidden observation
 Observation in which the subject is unaware that
observation is taking place.
 Direct Observation
 A straightforward attempt to observe and record what
naturally occurs; the investigator does not create an
artificial situation.
Behavior Description Example
Facial expressions Expressions of emotion such
as surprise (eyes wide open,
mouth rounded and slightly open,
brow furrowed) A consumer reacts to
the price quoted by a
salesperson.
Body language Posture, placement of
arms and legs A consumer crosses
arms as salesperson
speaks, possibly
indicating a lack of
trust.
 content analysis
 The systematic observation and quantitative
description of the manifest content of communication.
(Crests Analysis)
 For example, content analysis of advertisements
might evaluate their use of words, themes, characters,
or space and time relationships. Another topic of
content analysis is the frequency with which women,
African-Americans, or ethnic minorities appear in
mass media.
 Mazda and Syzygy
 When Mazda Motor Europe set out to improve its website, the company wanted details about how
consumers were using the site and whether finding information was easy. Mazda hired a research firm
called Syzygy to answer those questions with observational research.14 Syzygy's methods include the use
of an eye-tracking device that uses infrared light rays to record what areas of a computer screen a user is
viewing. For instance, the device measured the process computer users followed in order to look for a
local dealer or arrange a test drive. Whenever a process seemed confusing or difficult, the company looked
for ways to make the website easier to navigate.
 To conduct this observational study, Syzygy arranged for 16 subjects in Germany and the United Kingdom
to be observed as they used the website. The subjects in Germany were observed with the eye-tracking
equipment. As the equipment measured each subject’s gaze, software recorded the location on the screen
and graphed the data. Syzygy’s results included three-dimensional contour maps highlighting the “peak”
areas where most of the computer users’ attention was directed.
 Questions
 1. What could Mazda learn from eye-tracking software that would be difficult to learn from other
observational methods?
 2. What are the shortcomings of this method?
 3. Along with the eye-tracking research, what other research methods could help Mazda assess the
usability of its website? Summarize your advice for how Mazda could use complementary methods to
obtain a complete understanding of its website’s usability.