LESSON 1.

ISSUES IN CROP PRODUCTION AND

DEVELOPMENT

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

 
WITH THE ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE UNITED NATIONS ON
OCTOBER 31, 2011 THAT THE WORLD’S POPULATION HAS CROSSED
7 BILLION, THE HARD QUESTION RAISED IN OUR MINDS IS ―WILL
THE CURRENT POPULATION GROWTH RATE BE SUPPORTED BY
CARRYING CAPACITY OF THE EARTH? IT IS ESTIMATED THAT MORE
THAN 120 MILLION PEOPLE WILL BE ADDED TO THE PLANET DURING
THE YEAR 2011 WHILE THE DEATHS WILL BE ONLY ABOUT 70
MILLION.
 WHERE THE MOST RAPID GROWTH WOULD BE? IT IS
ESTIMATED TO BE IN ASIA AND AFRICA, WHICH WILL BE THE
MOST CROWDED CONTINENTS ON EARTH. IT IS ESTIMATED
THAT BY THE YEAR 2025, OUT OF 8 BILLION WORLD’S
POPULATION, 6 BILLION WILL BE LIVING ONLY IN ASIA AND
AFRICA. IN COMPARISON, THE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES WILL
BE EXPERIENCING NEAR ZERO POPULATION GROWTH. THUS,
AT THE END OF YEAR 2025, APPROXIMATELY 80% OF WORLD
POPULATION WILL BE LIVING IN UNDER-DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES OF ASIA AND AFRICA.
GLOBAL DEMANDS FOR FOOD SUPPLY
 
IT IS CLAIMED THAT THE FOOD PRODUCTION ON THE GLOBE IS
ENOUGH TO SUPPORT THE WORLD’S CURRENT POPULATION.
HOWEVER, THE FACT IS THAT A LARGE PROPORTION OF THE
POPULATION IS STILL STARVED. SINCE THE START OF TWENTY-
FIRST CENTURY, THE PROPORTION OF MALNOURISHED PEOPLE
HAS BEEN REPORTED TO BE ALMOST HALVED IN THE PAST 40
YEARS. NEVERTHELESS, RECENT ESTIMATES INDICATE THAT THE
PROPORTION OF MALNOURISHED/STARVED PEOPLE IS ONCE
AGAIN STEADILY INCREASING.
GLOBAL FOOD PRODUCTION
 
ALTHOUGH, THERE ARE 250,000–300,000 KNOWN PLANT
SPECIES ON PLANET EARTH, ONLY 150–200 OF THESE ARE
USED BY HUMANS FOR DIETARY PURPOSES. ABOUT 75% OF
THE WORLD’S FOOD IS GENERATED FROM ONLY 12 PLANTS AND
5 ANIMAL SPECIES. AMONG THESE, ONLY THREE CROPS (RICE,
MAIZE AND WHEAT) CONTRIBUTE ~60% OF CALORIES AND
PROTEINS OBTAINED BY HUMANS FROM PLANTS, WHILE
ANIMALS PROVIDE ABOUT 30% OF HUMAN REQUIREMENTS FOR
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE. THE FOOD PRODUCTION IS STEADILY
INCREASING WITH THE DEMAND.
CHALLENGES FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION
 
CURRENTLY, THE CROP PRODUCTION WORLD-WIDE IS FACING A
NUMBER OF CHALLENGES. THESE, INCLUDE ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSTRAINTS, DISEASES AND PATHOGENS, LOSS OF GENETIC
DIVERSITY, AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE. AMONG THE ABIOTIC
STRESSES, DROUGHT IS THE MOST IMPORTANT AND MOST COMMON
LIMITING FACTOR OF CROP PRODUCTION IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID
REGIONS OF THE WORLD (SARANGA ET AL. 2001). IT IS ESTIMATED THAT
MORE THAN 1/4 OF TOTAL LAND AREA IS DRY AND ABOUT 1/3 OF THE
WORLD’S CULTIVABLE LAND IS UNDER WATER SHORTAGE CONDITIONS
(KIRIGWI ET AL. 2004).
THE CROP QUALITY AND PRODUCTION IS ALSO SERIOUSLY
INFLUENCED BY GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGES WHICH ENHANCE THE
FREQUENCY AND INTENSITY OF WATER SHORTAGE THEREBY
MAKING THE SITUATION MORE SERIOUS (HONGBO ET AL. 2005).

SALT STRESS IS THE SECOND MOST PREVALENT ABIOTIC STRESS

IN THE WORLD THAT ADVERSELY IMPACTS PLANT GROWTH
(PESSARAKLI 1991). HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS IS ANOTHER
MAJOR FACTOR THAT SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECTS PLANT PRODUCTIVITY
PARTICULARLY IN ARID ZONES (BRAY ET AL. 2000). HEAT STRESS OR
HEAT SHOCK, CAUSED BY RISE IN AMBIENT TEMPERATURE BEYOND A
THRESHOLD LEVEL, IS A MAJOR THREAT TO CROP PRODUCTION
WORLDWIDE (HALL 2001).
IN GENERAL, HEAT STRESS IS CONSIDERED WHEN TEMPERATURE
ELEVATES 10–15°C ABOVE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE. OTHER
PROBLEMS OF RELATIVELY LESS INTENSITY THAT HINDER CROP
PRODUCTION INCLUDE, ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS SUCH AS
HEAVY METALS, PESTICIDES, FERTILIZERS, PETROLEUM
PRODUCTS, AND OTHER ORGANIC AND INORGANIC CHEMICALS.
SOIL MISMANAGEMENT AND LOSS OF SOIL FERTILITY DUE TO
EXCESSIVE CULTIVATION OF CROP IS ALSO THREATENING THE
CROP PRODUCTION WORLDWIDE. IN ADDITION TO ALL THESE
ABIOTIC STRESSES, BIOTIC STRESSES SUCH AS DISEASES, PESTS
AND PATHOGENS ALSO CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY TOWARDS
CROP LOSSES WORLDWIDE, THOUGH THEIR CONTRIBUTION IS
SIGNIFICANTLY LESS THAN THAT OF ABIOTIC STRESSES.
 CHALLENGES FOR SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION

CURRENTLY, THE CROP PRODUCTION WORLD-WIDE IS FACING A

NUMBER OF CHALLENGES. THESE, INCLUDE ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSTRAINTS, DISEASES AND PATHOGENS, LOSS OF GENETIC
DIVERSITY, AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE. AMONG THE ABIOTIC
STRESSES, DROUGHT IS THE MOST IMPORTANT AND MOST
COMMON LIMITING FACTOR OF CROP PRODUCTION IN ARID AND
SEMI-ARID REGIONS OF THE WORLD (SARANGA ET AL. 2001).
IT IS ESTIMATED THAT MORE THAN 1/4 OF TOTAL LAND AREA IS DRY
AND ABOUT 1/3 OF THE WORLD’S CULTIVABLE LAND IS UNDER
WATER SHORTAGE CONDITIONS (KIRIGWI ET AL. 2004). THE CROP
QUALITY AND PRODUCTION IS ALSO SERIOUSLY INFLUENCED BY
GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGES WHICH ENHANCE THE FREQUENCY
AND INTENSITY OF WATER SHORTAGE THEREBY MAKING THE
SITUATION MORE SERIOUS (HONGBO ET AL. 2005).
 SALT STRESS IS THE SECOND MOST PREVALENT ABIOTIC STRESS
IN THE WORLD THAT ADVERSELY IMPACTS PLANT GROWTH
(PESSARAKLI 1991). HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS IS ANOTHER
MAJOR FACTOR THAT SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECTS PLANT
PRODUCTIVITY PARTICULARLY IN ARID ZONES (BRAY ET AL. 2000).
HEAT STRESS OR HEAT SHOCK, CAUSED BY RISE IN AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE BEYOND A THRESHOLD LEVEL, IS A MAJOR THREAT
TO CROP PRODUCTION WORLDWIDE (HALL 2001). IN GENERAL,
HEAT STRESS IS CONSIDERED WHEN TEMPERATURE ELEVATES 10–
15°C ABOVE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
OTHER PROBLEMS OF RELATIVELY LESS INTENSITY THAT HINDER
CROP PRODUCTION INCLUDE, ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS SUCH
AS HEAVY METALS, PESTICIDES, FERTILIZERS, PETROLEUM
PRODUCTS, AND OTHER ORGANIC AND INORGANIC CHEMICALS.
SOIL MISMANAGEMENT AND LOSS OF SOIL FERTILITY DUE TO
EXCESSIVE CULTIVATION OF CROP IS ALSO THREATENING THE
CROP PRODUCTION WORLDWIDE. IN ADDITION TO ALL THESE
ABIOTIC STRESSES, BIOTIC STRESSES SUCH AS DISEASES, PESTS
AND PATHOGENS ALSO CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY TOWARDS
CROP LOSSES WORLDWIDE, THOUGH THEIR CONTRIBUTION IS
SIGNIFICANTLY LESS THAN THAT OF ABIOTIC STRESSES
 CROP LOSSES DUE TO BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS

IT IS ESTIMATED THAT ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC STRESSES

COLLECTIVELY CONTRIBUTE MORE THAN 50% CROP LOSSES
WORLDWIDE. A SURVEY CONDUCTED BY BAYER IN 2008 INDICATED
THAT CROP LOSSES CAUSED BY STRESSES WERE SIGNIFICANTLY
GREATER THAN THE AVERAGE YIELD OF ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT
CROPS (CORN, WHEAT, SOY, MILLET, OATS AND BARLEY). THEY ALSO
SHOWED THAT THE ABIOTIC STRESSES CAUSED SIGNIFICANTLY
HIGHER CROP LOSSES THAN DID THE BIOTIC ONES.
FOR EXAMPLE, THE AVERAGE YIELD OF CORN IN 2008 WAS 4,500
KG/HA WHILE THE CROP LOSSES DUE TO BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC
STRESSES WERE 6,000 AND 19,000 KG/HA, RESPECTIVELY. THE
AVERAGE YIELD OF WHEAT WAS APPROXIMATELY 1,500 KG/HA,
WHILE CROP LOSSES WERE 2,000 KG/HA DUE TO BIOTIC STRESSES
AND 14,500 KG/HA DUE TO ABIOTIC STRESSES.
 
 STRATEGIES FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT

IN VIEW OF THE SITUATION PREVAILING FOR FOOD SECURITY

WORLDWIDE, IT IS AMPLY CLEAR THAT WE NEED TO DEVISE CONCRETE
METHODOLOGIES TO INCREASE AVERAGE CROP YIELD. AT THE FIRST
INSTANCE, WE NEED TO CONTROL HAPHAZARDLY INCREASING HUMAN
POPULATION SO THAT PRESSURE ON OUR CROPLANDS FOR CROP
PRODUCTION COULD BE REDUCED. SECONDLY, WE NEED TO COMBAT
ENVIRONMENTAL ADVERSARIES, A MAJOR REASON OF CROP LOSSES
WORLDWIDE, BY DEVELOPING CONVENTIONAL AND ADVANCED
METHODOLOGIES.
THIS CAN BE ACHIEVED BY WATER MANAGEMENT, SOIL
MANIPULATION, NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT, SCREENING AND
SELECTION OF THE EXISTING GENE POOL, CONVENTIONAL AND
MOLECULAR BREEDING, TISSUE CULTURE, GENETIC
TRANSFORMATIONS AND MOLECULAR ENHANCEMENTS.
ADDITIONALLY, WE HAVE TO MANAGE CROP LOSSES ARISING
FROM BIOTIC AGENTS THROUGH DISEASE AND PEST
MANAGEMENT.
 
AS DISCUSSED EARLIER, THE IMPACT OF ABIOTIC STRESSES ON
YIELD LOSSES IS MORE SEVERE THAN THAT BY THE BIOTIC ONES.
THEREFORE, WE HAVE TO COMBAT ABIOTIC STRESSES IN THE
FIRST INSTANCE SO AS TO FULFILL OUR DESIRE TO INCREASE
CROP PRODUCTIVITY WORLDWIDE. NORMALLY, IT IS ACHIEVED
THROUGH CONVENTIONAL BREEDING AND SELECTION STRATEGIES
TO SELECT TOLERANT VARIETIES/LINES.
ALTHOUGH, SUCH EFFORTS HAVE ENDURING IMPACT, THEIR
DEVELOPMENT IS USUALLY SLOW AND REQUIRES A
CONSIDERABLE TIME TO SUCCEED (WITCOMBE ET AL. 2008). IN THE
RECENT PAST, USE OF VARIOUS MOLECULAR ENHANCEMENTS HAS
SHOWN A PROMISING MEANS TO INDUCE SHORT-TERM
RESISTANCE TO ABIOTIC STRESSES.
 CROP PRODUCTION,
AGRICULTURE AND TRADE
 WHAT IS CROP PRODUCTION?

CROP PRODUCTION IS THE SCIENCE,

ART, AND BUSINESS OF PRODUCING
CROPS.
 CROP PRODUCTION AS A SCIENCE

AS A SCIENCE, CROP PRODUCTION UTILIZES

THEORIES DERIVED FROM VARIOUS SCIENTIFIC
DISCIPLINES ESPECIALLY IN ALLIED FIELDS SUCH AS
BOTANY, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
 CROP PRODUCTION AS AN ART

THE ART IN CROP PRODUCTION IS CONTINUOUSLY

EVOLVING. IN PRIMITIVE CULTURE IT IS MANIFESTED
IN DAY-TO-DAY ACTIVITIES OF THE CROP PRODUCERS
IN THE FARM THIS INCLUDES BUT NOT LIMITED TO
SELECTION OF A SPECIFIC CROP AND/OR VARIETY TO
PRODUCE, CROP IMPROVEMENT, LAND PREPARATION,
CULTIVATION, PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT,
HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES.
 CROP PRODUCTION AS A BUSINESS

ONE OF THE MAJOR PURPOSES OF CROP

PRODUCTION IS ON PROVISION OF FOOD AND
OTHER BASIC NEED TO THE HUMANITY IT
ENGAGED INTO A CAREFUL PLANNING, ORGANIZED
WORKS AND ACTIVITIES TO PRODUCE SAID
PRODUCTS. IT IS AIMED AT HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY
TO INCREASE PROFITABILITY.
A BUSINESS THE FARMERS ARE THE MANAGERS,
THEY MADE DECISIONS SO THAT THIS ECONOMIC
ACTIVITY WILL PROSPER. THEY HARMONIZED THE
FACTORS OF CROP PRODUCTION TO PROVIDE AN
ENVIRONMENT THAT ENHANCE PRODUCTIVITY
THEREBY INCREASING PROFITS.
CROP PRODUCTION IS A COMPLEX OPERATION WHICH IS DEPENDENT
TO THREE FACTORS :

 crops

 environment

 the management or the human factor

It covers the whole range of operations from planting to

harvesting including the primary aspects of crop processing.
 PHILIPPINE CROP PRODUCTION

• THE PHILIPPINE CROP AGRICULTURE COVERS THE AREA

PLANTED WITH PERMANENT CROPS AND AREA PLANTED
WITH TEMPORARY CROPS.
• IN 2019, CROP PRODUCTION AREA COVERS AROUND 13.298
MILLION HECTARES, 50% OF IT IS HARVESTED WITH CORN
(2.5M HA) AND PALAY (4.6 M HA).
• IN TERMS OF VOLUME IN PRODUCTION, SUGARCANE, RICE,
COCONUT, BANANA AND CORN WERE THE TOP 5 PRODUCED
CROP IN THE PHILIPPINES IN THE YEAR 2019 (PSA, 2020).
BASED ON THE DATA OF PHILIPPINE STATISTICS
AUTHORITY (2020),

RICE WAS THE LARGELY PRODUCED CROP IN 2019

IN TERMS OF AREA HARVESTED.
TOTAL LAND AREA DEVOTED FOR RICE
PRODUCTION IS AROUND 4,651,500 HECTARES.
IT IS FOLLOWED BY COCONUT (3,651,900 HA) AND
THEN CORN (2,516,700 HA).
LUZON IS THE LARGEST PRODUCER OF PALAY
WHEREIN 60.7% OF THE COUNTRY’S PRODUCTION IS
COMING FROM THIS ISLAND.

ON THE OTHER HAND, MINDANAO IS ALSO

CONSIDERED AS THE LARGEST PRODUCER OF CORN
AND COCONUT IN THE COUNTRY.
IN 2021, 51.4% OF THE TOTAL CORN PRODUCTION
AND 59.5 % OF THE COUNTRY’S COCONUT
PRODUCTION WERE COMING FROM MINDANAO.
AROUND 72.3% OF SUGARCANE WAS PRODUCED IN
VISAYAS. MOREOVER, LARGE AMOUNT OF OUR
MAJOR CROP EXPORT - BANANA AND PINEAPPLE
WERE ALSO PRODUCED IN MINDANAO.
CROP INDUSTRY HAS BEEN ONE OF THE FILIPINOS
SOURCES EMPLOYMENTS.
IN 2016, GROWING OF PERENNIAL CROPS EMPLOYED
THE GREATEST NUMBER OF WORKERS WITH 62,362
OR 43.3 % OF THE TOTAL. THIS WAS FOLLOWED BY
GROWING OF NON-PERENNIAL CROPS AND ANIMAL
PRODUCTION WITH 33,339 WORKERS (23.1%) AND
20,635 WORKERS (14.3%), RESPECTIVELY.
 WHAT IS AGRICULTURE AND TRADE?

AGRICULTURE AND TRADE INVOLVE THE

PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF PRODUCTS THAT
ARE PRODUCED THROUGH FARMING INDUSTRIES.
IT CREATES A GREATER ACCESS ON THE VARIETY OF
AGRICULTURAL GOODS, COMMODITIES ARE
PRODUCED ORGANICALLY, GENETICALLY
ENGINEERED, AND SOME ARE GROWN
CONVENTIONAL.
A PRODUCT SHOULD BE COMPETENT IN TERMS OF
ITS QUALITY SUCH AS THE APPEARANCE, TASTE,
AND SMELLS, ETC. TRADES IS THE WAYS OF
BRINGING FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES TO
NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES, TRADING IS ALSO A WAY
OF SUPPLYING PRODUCTS IN A COUNTRY WHERE
SUCH COMMODITIES ARE NOT AVAILABLE OR NOT
GROWING.
AGRICULTURAL TRADE IS BASICALLY IMPORTANT IN
ALLEVIATING POVERTY AND HUNGER IN THE WORLD.
IT CREATES THOUSAND JOBS FOR THE PEOPLE, TRADE
HELPS IN A NUMBER OF WAYS BY ALLOWING
COUNTRIES TO TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THEIR
RADICALLY DIFFERENT FACTOR ENDOWMENTS, WITH
LAND-ABUNDANT COUNTRIES PROVIDING EXPORTS
AND LAND-POOR COUNTRIES TAKING ADVANTAGE OF
MUCH MORE EFFICIENTLY PRODUCED IMPORTS.
TRADE LIBERALIZATION CAN HELP BY INCREASING
PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY IN AGRICULTURE,
ALLOWING IMPROVEMENTS IN DIETARY DIVERSITY
AND INCREASING ACCESS TO FOOD. ALLOWING
TRADE SUBSTANTIALLY REDUCES THE VOLATILITY
OF FOOD PRICES BY DIVERSIFYING SOURCES OF
SUPPLY.
 FOOD CHAIN

IN SCIENTIFIC TERMS, A FOOD CHAIN IS A CHRONOLOGICAL

PATHWAY OR AN ORDER THAT SHOWS THE FLOW OF
ENERGY FROM ONE ORGANISM TO THE OTHER. IN A
COMMUNITY WHICH HAS PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS, AND
DECOMPOSERS, THE ENERGY FLOWS IN A SPECIFIC
PATHWAY. ENERGY IS NOT CREATED OR DESTROYED. BUT
IT FLOWS FROM ONE LEVEL TO THE OTHER, THROUGH
DIFFERENT ORGANISMS.
 A food chain shows a single pathway from the
producers to the consumers and how the energy flows
in this pathway.
 In the animal kingdom, food travels around different
levels.
 PARTS OF FOOD CHAIN

PRODUCERS - ARE ORGANISMS WHO MAKE (OR PRODUCE)

THEIR OWN FOOD. PLANTS ARE PRODUCERS. PLANTS ARE
AUTOTROPHIC, MEANING THAT THEY SELF-FEED THROUGH
THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS. WITHOUT PLANTS IN
THE FOOD CHAIN CREATING ENERGY FROM A NON-LIVING
SOURCE (THE SUN) THE REST OF THE FOOD CHAIN WOULD
NOT EXIST. PLANTS ARE THE FIRST ENERGY SOURCE FOR
PRIMARY CONSUMERS AND START OFF THE LIVING FOOD
CHAIN.
CONSUMERS - ARE ANIMALS THAT EAT
PRODUCERS AND GET ENERGY FROM THEM.
CONSUMERS ARE ANIMALS OF AN ECOLOGICAL
FOOD CHAIN THAT CONSUMES OTHER ORGANISMS.
THEY ARE THE MAJOR PART OF THE FOOD CHAIN,
CONSUME BOTH PLANTS AND ANIMALS TO
PRODUCE ENERGY IN OUR BODIES. THE
FOLLOWING ARE THE THREE TYPE OF
CONSUMERS.
HERBIVORES - ARE CONSUMERS THAT EAT ONLY
PLANTS, FRUITS, AND VEGETABLES. SOME EXAMPLES
OF HERBIVORES ARE RABBITS, GIRAFFES, AND DEER.
CARNIVORES - ARE CONSUMERS THAT CONSUME
ONLY OTHER ANIMALS. SOME EXAMPLES OF
CARNIVORES ARE CATS, SHARKS, AND OWLS.
OMNIVORE – ARE CONSUMERS THAT EATS BOTH
PLANTS AND ANIMALS FOR ENERGY. SOME COMMON
OMNIVORES ARE PIGS, RACCOONS, AND HUMANS.
DECOMPOSERS - ARE ALSO CALLED
DETRITIVORES. THEY EAT DECAYING OR DEAD
MATTER INCLUDING DEAD PLANTS OR ANIMALS.
WHEN DECOMPOSITION OCCURS, MINERALS AND
NUTRIENTS ARE RELEASED BACK INTO THE SOIL.
PLANTS THEN USE THE NUTRIENTS AND
MINERALS TO GROW. DECOMPOSERS ARE AN
IMPORTANT PART OF KEEPING THE FOOD CHAIN
CYCLE CONTINUAL.