University of Computer Studies, Yangon (UCSY)

Hardware: The CPU & Storage

Faculty of Computer Systems and Technologies

CS-101
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Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Principle of Information
Technology
Textbook: Using Information Technology, A Practical
Introduction
to Computers & Communications
Edition: Eleventh Edition
Authors: Brian K. Williams, Stacey C. Sawyer

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Contents Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Processing: The System Unit, Microprocessor, & Main Memory

 Microchip, Miniaturization, & Mobility
 Representing Data Electronically
 Inside the System Unit: Power Supply, Motherboard, & Microprocessor
 The Central processing Unit & the Machine Cycle
 Memory
 Expansion Cards, Bus Lines, & Ports
 Secondary Storage
 Secondary Storage
 Future Developments in Processing & Storge

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Processing: The System Unit,Dr.Microprocessors,
Cho Cho San, L, UCSY & Main Memory (UCSY)

 A circuit is a closed path followed or capable of being

followed by an electric current.

[1] https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/what-is-a-circuit/all

 Vacuum tubes used wire circuits inside them to facilitate

the flow of electrons.

https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/v/vacuum-tube.jpg

 Transistors have replaced vacuum tubes.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transistorer_(cropped).jpg 4
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Microchips, Miniaturization, &San,
Dr. Cho Cho Mobility
L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The Since the early 1970s, microchips have gotten smaller and smaller yet more and
more powerful and faster.
 A transistor is a tiny electronic switch that can be turned “on” or “off” millions of times per
second.

Assignment types of transistor 5

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Miniaturization Miracles: Microchips
Dr. Cho Cho San, L,& Microprocessors
UCSY (UCSY)

 Transistors form part of an integrated circuit — an entire electronic circuit, including wires,
formed on a single “chip,” or piece, of special material, usually silicon, as part of a single
manufacturing process.
 Integrated circuits were developed by Jack Kilby.
 Integrated circuits are solid state (no moving parts).

 In a solid-state device, the electrons travel through solid material with no moving parts -
silicon.

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Miniaturization Miracles: Dr.
Microchips & Microprocessors
Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Silicon is an element that is widely found in clay and sand.

 It is used not only because its abundance makes it cheap but also because it is a
semiconductor.
 A semiconductor is a material whose electrical properties are intermediate between a
good conductor of electricity and a nonconductor of electricity.
 conductor of electricity is the copper in household wiring;
 nonconductor is the plastic sheath around that wiring.
 A chip, or microchip, is a tiny piece of silicon that contains millions of microminiature
etched integrated electronic circuits.

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Miniaturization Miracles: Dr.
Microchips & Microprocessors
Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Timeline: Developments in processing and storage

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Miniaturization Miracles: Dr.
Microchips & Microprocessors
Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Microchips store and process data in electronic devices

 A microprocessor (“microscopic processor” or “processor on a chip”) is the miniaturized
circuitry of a computer processor—the CPU (central processing unit), the part that
processes, or manipulates, data into information.
 The development of microchips and processors has enabled the development of small,
mobile electronic devices.
 When modified for use in machines other than computers, microprocessors are called
microcontrollers, or embedded computers.

https://4.imimg.com/data4/OS/WH/MY-10100220/
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processor-500x500.jpg
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Miniaturization Leads toDr. Mobility
Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Microprocessors and microcontrollers have enabled mobility of electronic devices.

 Portability, or mobility, meant trading off computing power and convenience in return for
smaller size and less weight.

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System Unit Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The system unit is a case that contains the computer’s electronic components used to
process data.
 The system unit, also called the chassis, is the metal or plastic case housing a computer’s
electronic components used to process data.
Desktop PC System Units
 The processor and some secondary-storage devices appear inside the
system unit.
 Such input and output devices as the keyboard, mouse, monitor,
speakers, and microphone normally appear outside the system unit.

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System Unit Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Laptop & Netbook System Unit

 On laptop (notebook) computers, monitor is attached to the system unit.
 Netbook computers are smaller and less powerful than notebooks.
 Notebooks and netbooks with hinged screens are called clamshells.

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System Unit Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Tablet System Units

 Tablet computer is a wireless, portable personal computer with a touch-
screen interface.

 Slate tablets: Slate tablets lack a hardware keyboard, and the

display screen overlays the system unit.
 Examples of the slate style are Apple’s iPad and Microsoft’s Surface.

 Convertible tablets: Designed to be both a laptop and a tablet, a

convertible tablet has a display that rotates 180 degrees.
 It can be folded to close screen up over a hardware keyboard on the
outside of the system unit.
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System Unit Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Hybrid tablets/PCs: A hybrid tablet or hybrid PC, also known as a detachable PC.

Handheld System Units

 With handheld devices, such as smartphones, personal digital assistants, and e-books, all
the electronic components are contained within the device, including display, secondary
storage, and keyboard.

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Representing Data Electronically
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Data is represented in a computer by binary code.

 It is either on or off.
 The binary numeral system uses two numbers: 0 and 1.
 The decimal system has 10 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).
 Thus, in the computer, the 0 can be represented by the
electric current being off and the 1 by the current being on.

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Binary System Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Measuring Capacity
 Capacity is denoted by bits and bytes and multiples thereof—kilobytes, megabytes,
gigabytes, and so on:
 Bit: each 0 or 1 is a bit
 Byte: a group of 8 bits = 1 character, digit, or other value
 Kilobyte (KB): 1,000 (1,024) bytes
 Megabyte (MB): 1 million (1,048,576) bytes
 Gigabyte (GB): 1 billion (1,073,741,824) bytes
 Terabyte (TB): 1 trillion (1,009,511,627,776) bytes (1012)
 Petabyte (PB): 1 quadrillion bytes (1015)
 Exabyte (EB): 1 quintillion bytes
 yottabye, xenottabyte, shilentnobyte, domegemegrottebyte, icosebyte, monoicosebyte.
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Binary System (Measuring
Dr. Cho Capacity)
Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

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Binary Coding Schemes
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Letters, numbers, and special characters are represented within a computer system by
means of binary coding schemes.
 The off/on 0s and 1s are arranged in such a way that they can be made to represent
characters, digits, or other values.
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
 Pronounced “ask-ee”
 Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on the version
 8-bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters
 Commonly used for microcomputers

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Binary Coding Schemes Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Unicode
 Unicode uses 2 bytes (16 bits) for each character
 Unicode can handle 65,536 character combinations.

EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

 Pronounced “eb-see-dick”
 It is a binary code used with large IBM and IBM-compatible computers, such as
mainframes.
 It uses 1 byte for each character.

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Binary Coding Schemes
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

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Machine Language Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Machine code is the computer’s “native language.”

 Every brand of microprocessor has its own binary language, called machine language.
 Machine language is a binary-type programming language built into the processor (CPU)
that the computer can run directly.
 Language Translators: The computer’s system software converts higher-level language
instructions and data into machine language so that the processor can “understand” what
to do.

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Inside The System Unit Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The system unit is the main part of a computer system.

 The system unit houses the essential parts of the computer.
 The system unit houses the power supply; the motherboard, with its microprocessor chip
and memory chips; and storage devices.

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Inside The System UnitDr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

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Bays, Buttons, & Boards
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Bay : Opening in the computer cabinet used for the installation of electrical equipment.
 Buttons: The number of buttons on the outside of the computer case will vary, but the
on/off power switch will appear somewhere, probably on the front.
 Boards: Various electric circuit boards contain inside the case, (e.g. motherboard)

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Power Supply Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The power supply unit provides power for the motherboard and other main
components of the computer.
 This converts AC to DC to run the computer.

Surge Protector
 A surge protector, or surge suppressor, is a device that protects a computer
from being damaged by surges (spikes) of high voltage.
 The computer is plugged into the surge protector, which in turn is plugged
into a standard electric outlet.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
 Battery-operated device that provides power for a limited time when there is
a blackout.
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Motherboard Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The motherboard, or system board, is the

main circuit board in the system unit.
 The motherboard consists of a flat board
that fills one side of the case.
 It contains both soldered, nonremovable
components and sockets or slots for
components that can be removed—
microprocessor chip, RAM chips, and
various expansion cards.

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Expansion Slots and Microprocessor
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY Chip (UCSY)

 Expansion is a way of increasing a computer’s capabilities by adding hardware to perform

tasks that are beyond the scope of the basic system.
 Upgrading means changing to newer, usually more powerful or sophisticated versions,
such as a more powerful microprocessor or more memory chips. 27
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Microprocessor Chip Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 A microprocessor is the miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor, contained on a

small silicon chip.
 It stores program instructions that process, or manipulate, data into information.
 Transistors—key parts of a chip: The key parts of the microprocessor are transistors.

 Transistors are tiny electronic devices that act as on/off switches, which process the on/off
(1/0) bits used to represent data.
 The chipset—chips for controlling information among system components:
 The chipset consists of groups of interconnected chips on the motherboard that are
designed to work together to control the flow of information between the microprocessor
and other system components connected to the motherboard.

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Traditional Microcomputer Microprocessors
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Intel-type processors for microcomputers—Intel and AMD chips: Intel-type chips have
a similar internal design and are made to run microcomputers.
 Processors for portable devices: Chip makers have been rushing to produce
processors for portable devices, from smartphones to tablets to handheld game systems.
 Graphics processing units—specialized processors for 3-D graphics: A graphics
processing unit (GPU) is a specialized processor used to manipulate three-dimensional
(3-D) computer graphics.
 Processors for data centers: A data center, or datacenter, sometimes called a server
farm, is a facility that holds servers and related network equipment.

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Traditional Microcomputer
Dr. Cho Microprocessors
Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Processing Speeds
 Every microprocessor contains a system clock, which controls how fast all the operations
within a computer take place (the chip’s processing speed).
 Older CPU processing speeds are in megahertz.
 1 MHz = 1 million cycles per second
 Current CPU processing speeds are in gigahertz.
 1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second
 The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it generates.

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 Comparison of Some Popular Recent
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY
Microcomputer FCST
(UCSY)

Processors

Page 209

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Central Processing UnitDr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The CPU, for central processing unit, is the “brain” of the computer; it follows the
instructions of the software (program) to manipulate data into information.
 The CPU consists of two parts—(1) the control unit and (2) the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU),
both of which contain registers, or high-speed storage areas.
 The control unit deciphers each instruction stored in the CPU and then carries out the
instruction.
 In the machine cycle, the CPU (1) fetches an instruction, (2) decodes the instruction, (3)
executes the instruction, and (4) stores the result.

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Central Processing UnitDr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

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Control Unit & MachineDr.Cycle
Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The control unit deciphers each instruction stored in the CPU and then carries out the
instruction.
 It directs the movement of electronic signals between main memory and the arithmetic/
logic unit.
 It also directs these electronic signals between main memory and the input and output
devices.
 For every instruction, the control unit carries out four basic operations, known as the
machine cycle.
 In the machine cycle, the CPU (1) fetches an instruction, (2) decodes the instruction, (3)
executes the instruction, and (4) stores the result.

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Control Unit & MachineDr.Cycle
Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Each time the central processing unit executes an instruction, it takes a series of steps.
 The complete series of steps is called a machine cycle.

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Arithmetic/Logic Unit Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations and logical operations and
controls the speed of those operations.
 Arithmetic operations are the fundamental math operations: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
 Logical operations are comparisons.

 That is, the ALU compares two pieces of data to see whether one is equal to (=), greater
than (>), greater than or equal to (>=), less than (<), less than or equal to (<=), or not
equal to (≠) the other.

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Registers Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The control unit and the ALU also use registers, special CPU areas that enhance the
computer’s performance.
 Registers are high-speed storage areas for temporarily storing data during processing.
 The control unit and the ALU also use registers, special CPU areas that enhance the
computer’s performance.
 Registers are high-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing.

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Registers Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

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Buses & Word Size Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Buses are data roadways for transferring data within the CPU and to the motherboard.
 Buses, or bus lines, are electrical data roadways through which bits are transmitted within
the CPU and between the CPU and other components of the motherboard.
 A bus resembles a multilane highway: The more lanes it has, the faster the bits can be
transferred.
 The bus width is the same as the computer’s word size, the number of bits that the
processor can process at any one time.
 The more bits in a word, usually the faster the computer.
 A 32-bit-word computer will transfer data within each microprocessor chip in 32-bit
chunks.
 A 64-bit-word computer is faster, transferring data in 64-bit chunks at a time.
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Memory Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Memory chips are also attached to the motherboard.

 Two type of storage: primary and secondary.
 Primary storage = “memory,” “main memory,” “RAM”; this type of memory is temporary
and volatile.
 Secondary storage = hard disks and flash memory units; this type of memory is
relatively permanent and nonvolatile.

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Memory Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The four principal types of memory chips are RAM, ROM, CMOS, and flash.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

 RAM is used to temporarily store program instructions and data.
 Memory refers to storage media in the form of chips, and storage refers to media such as
disks and tape.
 RAM (random access memory) chips temporarily hold (1) software instructions and (2)
data before and after it is processed by the CPU.
 Most RAM is said to be volatile—the contents are lost when the power goes off or is
turned off.

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RAM Types Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 TYPES OF RAM Three types of RAM exist—DRAM, SRAM, and MRAM:

DRAM
 It must be constantly refreshed by the CPU or it will lose its contents.

 Faster variations on the basic DRAM include SDRAM (synchronous dynamic RAM),
which is synchronized by the system clock;
 DDR-SDRAM (double-data rate synchronous dynamic RAM), and its later variations
DDR2 and DDR3; and
 RDRAM (Rambus DRAM), which is much faster than SDRAM.

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RAM Types Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

SRAM
 The second type, static RAM, or SRAM, is faster than DRAM and retains its contents
without having to be refreshed by the CPU.
MRAM
 The third and newer type is MRAM (magnetoresistive RAM), which stores data using
magnetic charges rather than electric charges and is faster and stores more data than
electronic RAM.
 MRAM retains its contents when the power is shut off.

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Cache Memory Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Cache is special memory to speed up processing.

 The CPU works much faster than RAM, so it often must wait for information.
 Cache temporarily stores instructions and data that the processor uses frequently to
speed up processing
 Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor
 Holds 8 to 128 KB
 Faster than Level 2 cache
 Level 2 cache is external cache
 Holds 64 kb to 16 MB
 Level 3 cache is on the motherboard
 holds 2 to 8 MB
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Cache Memory Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Virtual Memory: It is unused hard disk or optical (CD) space that the processor uses to
extend the capacity of RAM.

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Read-only Memory (ROM)
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 ROM chips store fixed start-up instructions.

 ROM cannot be written on or erased by the computer user without special equipment.
 ROM chips contain fixed start-up instructions.

 In computer terminology, read means to transfer data from an input source into the
computer’s memory or CPU and write means to transfer data from the computer’s CPU or
memory to an output device.
 Thus, with a ROM chip, read-only means that the CPU can retrieve programs from the
ROM chip but cannot modify or add to those programs.
 A variation is PROM (programmable read-only memory), which is a ROM chip that allows
the user to load read-only programs and data.
 However, this can be done only once.
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Flash Memory Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Flash memory chips store flexible programs.

 A nonvolatile form of memory, flash memory chips can be erased and reprogrammed
more than once.
 Flash memory, which doesn’t require a battery and which can range from 2 gigabytes to
256 gigabytes in capacity, is used to store programs not only in personal computers but
also in pagers, cellphones, MP3 players, printers, and digital cameras.
 Flash memory is also used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions; they can be updated
electronically on flash memory— the chip does not need to be replaced, as a ROM chip
would.

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Complementary Metal-oxide
Dr. Cho ChoSemiconductor
San, L, UCSY (CMOS) (UCSY)

 CMOS chips are powered by a battery and thus don’t lose their contents when the power
is turned off.
 Used for some RAM chips, flash memory chips, and other memory chips, CMOS chips
contain flexible start-up instructions—such as time, date, and calendar— that must be
kept current even when the computer is turned off.
 Unlike ROM chips, CMOS chips can be reprogrammed, as when you need to change the
time for daylight saving time.

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Expansion Cards, Bus Lines, & Ports
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Expansion cards plug into slots on the motherboard that are connected by buses to ports
that the user can access.
 Expansion cards are circuit boards that provide more memory or that control peripheral
devices (for graphics, sound, video, network interface, wireless connection, etc.).
 Buses connect the expansion cards to ports.

 A port is a connecting socket or jack on the outside of the computer unit or device into
which are plugged different kinds of cables that connect peripheral devices.

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Expansion Slots & Cards
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Expansion slots are sockets on the motherboard into which you can plug expansion
cards.
 Expansion cards—also known as expansion boards, adapter cards, interface cards,
plug-in boards, controller cards, add-ins, or add-ons—are circuit boards that provide more
memory or that control peripheral devices.
 New computers support Plug and Play, a set of hardware and software standards that
allow the computer to automatically configure expansion cards and other peripherals
while they are being installed.

If a computer uses closed architecture, no expansion cards can

be added; if the computer uses open architecture, expansion
cards can be inserted in expansion slots inside the computer,
connected to the motherboard.
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Types of Expansion Cards
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Graphics cards—for monitors: Also called a video card, video RAM (VRAM), or video adapter, a
graphics card converts signals from the computer into video signals that are displayed as images on
a monitor.

 Sound cards—for speakers and audio output: A sound card is used to convert and transmit
digital sounds through analog speakers, microphones, and headsets.

 Network interface cards—for remote communication via cable: A network interface card (NIC),
or network adapter card, allows the transmission of data over a cabled (wired) network, which
connects various computers and other devices such as printers.

 Wireless network cards—for through-the-air connections: A wireless network card, which often
has an antenna, enables wireless data transmission.

 PC Cards or ExpressCards—primarily for wireless Internet access: PC Cards or the smaller

ExpressCards, are thin, credit-card-size reusable (flash) memory devices used on traditional and
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notebook computers and tablets to expand capabilities, such as to access the Internet wirelessly.
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Expansion Bus Lines Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 An expansion bus is not the same as the frontside bus:

 Frontside bus: The bus that connects the CPU within itself and to main memory.
 Expansion bus: Buses that connect the CPU with expansion slots on the motherboard
and thus via ports with peripheral devices.

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Types of Expansion Buses
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Peripheral Component Interconnect(PCI): High-speed bus that has been widely used
to connect PC graphics cards, sound cards, modems, and high-speed network cards.
 PCI Express: Doubles the speed of the original PCI bus . PCIe is the latest standard for
expansion cards available on mainstream personal computers.
 Accelerated Graphics: Transmits data at twice the speed of a PCI bus and is designed
to support video and 3-D graphics.
 Universal Serial Bus (USB): Does away with the need to install cards in expansion slots.
USB devices can connect one to another outside the system unit, and then the USB bus
connects to the PCI bus on the motherboard.
 Firewire: Resembles the USB bus but is used for more specialized purposes, such as to
connect audio and video equipment to the motherboard.
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Ports Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 A port is a socket for some kind of plug, of which there are many types.
 A port is a connecting socket or jack on the outside of system unit into which are plugged
different kinds of cables.
 A port allows the user to plug in a cable to connect a peripheral device, such as a monitor,
printer, scanner, or microphone, so that it can communicate with the motherboard or with
cards inserted into slots of the motherboard

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Types of Ports Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Dedicated Ports
 Standard Ports
 Other Ports

Dedicated Ports
 Dedicated ports are ports for special purposes, such as
 the ports for connecting the keyboard and the mouse,
 the monitor port,
 the audio ports (green for speakers or headphones, pink for microphone, yellow for
home stereo connection),
 the modem port to connect your computer to a phone line, and
 a network port for a high-speed Internet connection.
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Types of Ports Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

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Types of Ports Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Standard Ports
 USB ports: Universal Serial Bus high-speed hardware standard
for interfacing peripheral devices, such as scanners and printers,
to computers without a need for special expansion cards or other
hardware modifications to the computer. USB is replacing many
varieties of serial and parallel ports.
 FireWire Port: Intended for multiple devices working with lots of
data and requiring fast transmission speeds, such as DVD drives,
digital video cameras, and gaming consoles.
 Ethernet Port: Supports a network standard for linking a wired
local area network and connecting it to a DSL or a cable modem
for high-speed Internet access. 57
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Types of Ports Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Graphics Port: Graphics ports include DVI (Digital Video Interface) ports for connecting
digital monitors and multimedia digital devices, such as TVs and DVD players.
 They also include the older VGA (Video Graphics Adapter) ports for connecting analog
monitors.

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Types of Ports Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Other Ports
 Serial ports—for transmitting slow data over long distances: Used to transmit data slowly
over long distances
 a) Sends data sequentially, one bit at a time
 b) Used to connect older keyboards, mouse, monitors, dial-up modems
 Parallel ports—for transmitting fast data over data over short distances: For transmitting
data quickly over short distances
 a) Transmits 8 bytes simultaneously
 b) Connects printers, external disks, tape backups

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Types of Ports Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 eSATA ports—for connecting fast external hard disks: External Serial Advanced Technology
Attachment; allows the attachment of an eSATA hard disk, which has fast data transmission
speeds.
 Bluetooth : Connects devices that use short-range radio waves that transmit up to 30 feet.

eSATA port

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Types of Ports Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 IrDA ports—for transmitting data via infrared light waves: IrDA stands for Infrared Data
Association.
 IrDA ports transfer data via infrared light waves between directly aligned devices, as
between a smartphone and a desktop computer.
 IrDA is still used in certain business and professional contexts, but wireless technology
has basically superseded it.

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Types of Ports Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 HDMI ports—for high-definition video and audio: HDMI stands for High Definition
Multimedia Interface.
 HDMI ports can carry both video and audio signals and are used for connecting HDTVs,
DVD players, and game consoles to computers, laptops, and other devices.
 MIDI ports—for connecting electronic musical instruments: Short for Musical Instrument
Digital Interface, MIDI ports are used to connect electronic musical instruments to a sound
card that converts the signals to digital instructions that can be saved or manipulated.

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Secondary Storage Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Secondary storage is all data storage that is not currently in a computer’s primary storage
(main memory, or RAM).
 Hard disks
 Optical disks: CD, DVD, and Blu-ray
 Flash and solid-state memory: solid-state drives, flash memory cards, and USB flash
drives
 Smart cards
 Cloud storage

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Hard Disks Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Still the major secondary-storage device for desktop/tower computers.

 Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that allows data to
be held in the form of magnetized spots.
 Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters.

 Important data should always be backed up!

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Hard Disks Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Hard disks store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters.

 Computer operating systems keep track of hard-disk sectors according to clusters.
 Tracks, sectors, and clusters: On the disk, data is recorded in concentric recording bands
called tracks.
 These tracks are neither visible grooves nor a single spiral.
 Rather, they are closed concentric rings; each track forms a full circle on the disk.
 When a disk is formatted, the disk’s storage locations are divided into wedge-shaped
sections, which break the tracks into small arcs called sectors.
 When you save data from your computer to a disk, the data is distributed by tracks and
sectors on the disk.
 That is, the system software uses the point at which a sector intersects a track to reference
the data location. 65
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Hard Disks Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 The read/write head:

 Each disk is fixed in place over the spindle of the drive mechanism.
 The read/write head is used to transfer data between the computer and the disk.

 When the disk spins, the read/write head moves back and forth over the data access area
on the disk.

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Hard Disks Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to clusters.

 Drive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash!
 Important data should always be backed up!

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Hard Disk Types Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Nonremovable hard disk – Also known as a fixed disk; is housed in the microcomputer
system unit and is used to store nearly all programs and most data files.
 Usually consists of several metallic or glass platters, from 1 to 5.25 inches (most
commonly 3.5 inches) in diameter, stacked on a spindle, with data stored on both sides.
Read/write heads, one for each side of each platter, are mounted on an access arm that
moves back and forth to the right location on the platter.
 External hard disk – Freestanding disk drive (portable); usually connected via USB.
 RAID – redundant array of independent disks; for large computer systems.

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Optical Disks Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 CDs (compact disks) and DVDs (digital versatile/video disks) are optical disks.
 DVDs hold more data then CDs do.
 Data is written and read using lasers, not a disk read/write head.

 CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory; content is prerecorded.

 CD-R (compact disk-recordable) is used for recording only once.
 CD-RW (compact disk-rewritable)is an erasable optical disk that can both record and
erase data over and over again
 DVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity.
 DVD-R (DVD-recordable) is used for recording only once.
 DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs.

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Optical Disks Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Blu-ray is an optical-disk format used to record, rewrite, and play back high-definition (HD)
video, as well as to store large amounts of data.

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Flash & Solid-State Memory
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Flash memory has no moving parts; it is “solid state.” Flash memory is also nonvolatile
 Flash memory and solid-state memory have become the most important form of mobile
secondary storage.
 Flash memory media are available in three forms:
 solid-state drives,
 flash memory cards, and
 USB flash drives.

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Flash & Solid-State Memory
Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

Solid-state Drives
 Instead of hard-disk drives, some tablets, laptops, desktops, and servers
feature a solid-state drive (SSD), which uses flash memory to store data,
instructions, and information.
Flash Memory Cards
 Flash memory cards, or flash RAM cards, are removable and reusable
storage media that are inserted into a flash memory slot in a digital camera,
notebook, smartphone, or other mobile device.
USB Flash Drives
 A USB flash drive, also called a thumb drive, keychain drive, or key drive,
consists of a finger-size module of reusable flash memory that plugs into
the USB ports of nearly any microcomputer. 72
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Smart Cards Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 It is a pocket-size card with integrated circuits.

 Resembles a credit card but contains a microprocessor and memory chips
 May function on three levels: credit, debit, and/or personal information

 Storage capacity: around 10 MBs

 Contact smart cards
 Must be swiped through card readers
 Can wear out from use
 Contactless smart cards
 Read when held in front of a low-powered laser

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Cloud Storage Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Cloud storage is online storage.

 Cloud storage, or online storage, is use of an Internet service to store data.
 Allows you to use the Internet to back up your data

 Sign up with a vendor and receive access to software and applications that allow you to
upload your data to that company’s server

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Future Developments InDr.Processing
Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Nanotechnology : molecules are used to create tiny machines for holding data or
performing tasks.
 Optical computing : Uses lasers and light, not electricity
 DNA computing : Potentially, biotechnology could be used to grow cultures of bacteria
that, when exposed to light, emit a small electrical charge,
 Quantum computing : Based on quantum mechanics and stores information using
particle states
 Better batteries : Wireless charging of batteries, longer-lasting batteries

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Future Developments inDr.Secondary
Cho Cho San, L, UCSY Storage (UCSY)

 Higher-density disks
 Perpendicular recording technology: stacking magnetic bits vertically on the surface of
a platter (instead of horizontally, as usual)
 Molecular electronics– storage at the subatomic level

 New Image-compression Technology - The technology uses a sensor that uses special
materials (called metamaterials) that can bend light and radio waves in unusual ways to
compress both still and video images.

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References Dr. Cho Cho San, L, UCSY (UCSY)

 Jack S. Kilby - Nobel Lecture

 Williams, B.K., Sawyer, S.C. and Hutchinson, S.E., 1999. Using information technology: A
practical introduction to computers & communications. McGraw-Hill Companies, PO Box
182604, Columbus, OH 43272.

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