Ciliates and sporozoa

Ciliates
Introduction
• The ciliates are a group of protozoans characterized by the presence
of hair-like organelles called cilia
• Ciliate, or ciliophoran, any member of the protozoan phylum
Ciliophora, of which there are some 8,000 species; ciliates are
generally considered the most evolved and complex of protozoans.
Ciliates are single-celled organisms
• hairlike organelles used for locomotion and food gathering.
Nutrition
• Most ciliates are heterotrophs, feeding on smaller organisms, such as
bacteria and algae, and detritus swept into the oral groove (mouth) by
modified oral cilia
• Food vacuoles are formed through phagocytosis and typically follow a
particular path through the cell as their contents are digested and broken
down by lysosomes so the substances the vacuole contains are then small
enough to diffuse through the membrane of the food vacuole into the cell
• contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to
maintain osmotic pressure,
• Anything left in the food vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct (anal
pore) is discharged by exocytosis
Types
• Although most ciliates are free-living and aquatic, such as the
Paramecium, many are ectocommensals, dwelling harmlessly on the
gills or integument of invertebrates, and some, such as the dysentery-
causing Balantidium are parasitic.
• peritrich;
• spirotrich;
• suctorian
Structure
• The cilia are usually arranged in rows, known as kineties, on the pellicle
(cell covering), but they may fuse together near the cytostome (cell
mouth) of some species to form membranelles or undulating membranes
• Most ciliates have a flexible pellicle and contractile vacuoles, and many
contain toxicysts or other trichocysts, small organelles with thread- or
thorn-like structures that can be discharged for anchorage, for defense,
or for capturing prey.
• Ciliates have one or more macronuclei and from one to several
micronuclei. The macronuclei control metabolic and developmental
functions; the micronuclei are necessary for reproduction.
Reproduction
• Reproduction is typically asexual, although sexual exchange occurs as
well. Asexual replication is usually by transverse binary fission or by
budding
• Sexual phenomena include conjugation (genetic exchange between
individuals) and autogamy (nuclear reorganization within an
individual)
• Sexual reproduction does not always result in an immediate increase
in numbers; however, conjugation is often followed by binary fission
Sexual Reproduction
Balantidium coli
• Balantidium coli is a parasitic species of ciliate alveolates that causes
the disease balantidiasis.
• It is the only member of the ciliate phylum known to be pathogenic
to humans.
• Most prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions and developing
countries
• It is often associated with swine, the primary reservoir host
• Balantidium coli occurs worldwide, more frequently in areas where
pigs are raised and sanitation is inadequate
Trophozoite
• In the trophozoite stage, Balantidium coli can measure between 50-
130 µm long by 20-70 µm wide
• it has a short ciliary covering and has spiraling motility
• The peristome, which is an opening at the anterior end of cell, is also
visible
• The macronucleus is a long, kidney-shaped structure while the
micronucleus is spherical. The micronucleus is usually next to the
macronucleus.
Reproduction
• Balantidium coli reproduces either by asexual transverse binary
fission or sexual conjugation. In asexual transverse binary fission the
protozoa grows in volume until it divides in half to make two identical
daughter cells
• In sexual conjugation, a transfer of
Genetic material between two ciliates
through direct cell-to-cell contact
happens
 Pathogenesis
• The host most often acquires the cyst through ingestion of contaminated food or
water
• Excystation occurs in the small intestine, and the trophozoites colonize the large
intestine
• The trophozoites reside in the lumen of the large intestine and appendix of
humans and animals, where they replicate by binary fission, during which
conjugation may occur
• Trophozoites undergo encystation to produce infective cysts
• Some trophozoites invade the wall of the colon and multiply, causing ulcerative
pathology in the colon wall.
• Some return to the lumen and disintegrate. Mature cysts are passed with feces.
Symptoms
• Acute or chronic with abdominal symptoms
• Complications of associated diarrhea or dysentery
• Peritonitis and liver abscesses have been noted
Diagnosis
• based on detection of trophozoites in stool specimens or in tissue
collected during endoscopy
• once outside the colon is rapidly destroyed. Thus stool specimens
should be collected repeatedly, and immediately examined or
preserved to enhance detection of the parasite
Treatment
• Three medications are used most often to treat Balantidium coli:
• tetracycline,
• metronidazole, and
• iodoquinol.
Parasitology
Sporozoa
Introduction
• Sporozoa is a large subphylum consisting of many unicellular,
intracellular parasites. Currently, the group is suggested to contain
over 65,000 species
• The subphylum Sporozoa is also referred to as Apicomplexa
• They are strictly parasitic, members of the subphylum are responsible
for a variety of diseases in human beings (e.g. Malaria, Babesiosis,
and Cyclosporiasis, etc)
Etiology
• The name of the taxon Apicomplexa derives from two Latin words—
apex (top) and complexus (infolds)
• Possess a unique form of organelle that comprises a type of plastid
called an apicoplast, and an apical complex structure
• The apical complex consists of a set of spirally arranged microtubules
(the conoid), a secretory body (the rhoptry) and one or more polar
rings
• secretory organelles are required for invasion of host cells
organelles
• Flagella are found only in the motile gamete
• They are capable of gliding movements
• Basal bodies are present
• The mitochondria have tubular cristae
• The cell is surrounded by a pellicle of three membrane layers
• Cell division is usually by schizogony.
• Meiosis occurs in the zygote
• All sporozoans are parasites of animals and cause disease
Life cycle
• Most sporozoans have a complex life-cycle, involving both asexual and
sexual reproduction.
• Typically, a host is infected by ingesting cysts, which divide to produce
sporozoites that enter the host's cells.
• Eventually, the cells burst, releasing merozoites which infect new host
cells.
• This may occur several times until gamonts are produced. The gamonts
then form gametes that fuse to create new cysts, and the cycle
continues.
• Many sporozoans will have more than one host
Sporozoa
Plasmodium
Introduction
• Plasmodium is a genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate
parasites of vertebrates and insects
• Plasmodium, commonly known as malaria parasites, a genus of
intracellular parasitic protozoa,are obligate parasites of insects (such
as mosquitoes) and vertebrates and thus referred to as digenetic
parasites
• They require two different hosts in order to complete their life cycle.
In vertebrates, they multiply within liver cells and red cells where they
not only obtain nourishment, but also damage the cells
Species causing malaria
• The word "malaria" comes from two Italian words; "mal" meaning bad,
and "aria" which means air
• Plasmodium species capable of causing malaria include:

• P. falciparum
• P. ovale
• P. malariae
• P. vivax
• P. knowlesi
Hosts

• Apart from human beings, Plasmodium species also infect the

following vertebrates:

• Monkeys - e.g. P. knowlesi ad P. coatneyi

• Chickens - e.g. P. juxtanucleare
• Pigeon - e.g. P. relictum
• Snakes - e.g. P. wenyoni
• Canaries - e.g. P. cathemerium
Epidemiology
• Malarial infection in humans continues to grow in tropic and sub-tropic areas
despite extensive studies on control measures.
• Transmission
• The malaria parasite is transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes, which
bite mainly between dusk and dawn.
• Malaria is transmitted by blood, so it can also be transmitted through:
• an organ transplant
• a transfusion
• use of shared needles or syringes
• Malaria is an acute febrile illness with an incubation period of 7 days or longer.
Structure
• They characteristically show the presence of apical complex, consists of polar
rings, rhoptries, micronemes, mitcochondrions, microtubules and microspores
• They show slight amoeboid change of form
• The parasite in their life cycle shows an alternation of generation accompanied
by an alternation of host
• Asexual cycle (Schizogony) takes place in erythrocytes in human host, sexual
cycle (Sporogony) takes place in mosquito
• Development of microgametes and macrogametes take place independently
• Each microgamont produces 8 microgametes on exflagellation.
• Sporozoites are naked with three layered wall
Life cycle
• The plasmodium life cycle consist of three stages: gametocytes, sporozoites, and
merozoites.
• Plasmodium start their life cycle as gametocytes in the bellies of a female
anopheles mosquito.
• they change into sporozoites and migrate to the salivary glands of the mosquito.
• The sporozoites are injected into the host as the female mosquito feeds
• the sporozoites make their way to the host's liver.
• Some of the sporozoites will change into merozoites and attack the red blood cells
of the host, and others will change into gametocytes to start the cycle again.
• Now a new mosquito can pick up new gametocytes and spread them to a new
potential host
Life cycle in mosquito
• Sometimes instead of schizogony the parasites will reproduce sexually into micro- or
macrogametocytes which through gametogenesis these micro- or macrogametocytes morph into
micro- or macrogametes
• After ingestion by mosquitoe, the microgametocyte undergoes three nuclear divisions; the
resulting eight nuclei become associated with thrashing flagella (this process is called exflagellation)
• The highly motile microgametes fuse with macrogametes and produce a zygote, which then
develops into an ookinete.
• Once reaching the space between the epithelial cells and the basal lamina of the host, the
ookinete develops into an oocyst.
• Asexual replication results in the production of a large number of sporozoites, which are released
into the body cavity of the mosquito vector upon the maturation of the oocyst
• The sporozoites are able to recognize the salivary gland of the vector, and are injected into the
vertebrate host during the mosquito's blood meal
0
Sporozoites
• The sporozoites are 10 -15 µm in length and about 1 µm in diameter
• They have a thin outer membrane, a double inner membrane below
which lies the subpelicular microtubules
• They have 3 polar rings and the rhoptries are long, extending half the
length of the body
• The micronemes, convoluted elongate bodies, run forward to the anterior
of the sporozoite entering a common duct with the rhoptries
• Mitochondria are located at the posterior end
• After entering the circulatory system, the sporozoites make quick work of
invading liver cells using the apical organelles
sporozoites
Merozoites
• The merozoites invade erythrocites and become enlarged ring-shaped
trophozoites
• In this stage the cells ingest the host cytoplasm and proteolyze
hemoglobin into amino acids
• Several rounds of nuclear divison yield a schizont
• From these schizonts merozoites bud, which are released after
rupturing the erythrocites
• More erythrocites are invaded, and the cycle is reinitiated.
Merozoites
Most virulent species
• P. falciparum is the most virulent species in man. It's responsible for
severe malaria (malignant malaria) which is characterized by irregular
paroxysms and high fever and may cause death if not treated.
• Symptoms include dizziness, muscle ache, fatigue, abdominal pain,
sore back, seizures, nausea, vomiting, fever, headache, etc. Severe
symptoms such as paralysis, convulsions, changes in level of
consciousness, etc. can occur
P.vivax
• Plasmodium vivax (P.v.) – This type is spread across the globe and also
predominantly found in India
• Nearly 60 percent of malaria cases in India are caused by P.v. Although
the illness is major, it seldom results in death or serious issues
• Symptoms include diarrhea, fatigue, and recurring bouts of chills and
fever. Primarily, these malaria symptoms are similar to the flu.
P.ovale
• Plasmodium ovale (P.o.) – Mainly found in the tropical West African
region, including Liberia, Ghana, and Nigeria, this is the rarest type of
malaria one can contract.
• It’s rare because the parasite resides in the host’s body for extended
periods – sometimes up to years – after the mosquito bite.
P.malariae
• Plasmodium malariae (P.m.) – This type is found in the tropical and
subtropical regions of Central and South America, Africa, and South
East Asia. It’s not considered as lethal as the others but ranks third in
prevalence. Chills and high fever are the usual malaria symptoms.
Symptoms
• shaking chills that can range from moderate to severe
• high fever
• profuse sweating
• headache
• nausea
• vomiting
• abdominal pain
• diarrhea
• anemia
• muscle pain
• convulsions
• coma
• bloody stools
Complications
• Malaria can cause a number of life-threatening complications. The
following may occur:

• swelling of the blood vessels of the brain, or cerebral malaria

• an accumulation of fluid in the lungs that causes breathing problems,
or pulmonary edema
• organ failure of the kidneys, liver, or spleen
• anemia due to the destruction of red blood cells
• low blood sugar
Diagnosis
• Microscopic examination remains the “gold standard” for laboratory
confirmation of malaria
• A blood specimen collected from the patient is spread as a thick or thin blood
smear, stained with a Romanovsky stain (most often Giemsa), and examined
with a 100X oil immersion objective
• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This test detects parasite nucleic acids and
identifies the species of malaria parasite.
• Complete blood count (CBC). This checks for anemia or evidence of other
possible infections. Anemia sometimes develops in people with malaria,
because the parasites damage red blood cells.
• A blood glucose test. This measures the amount of glucose, in blood.
RDT
• Rapid diagnostic test. Also called RDT or antigen testing, this is a quick
option when blood draws and smears aren't available. Blood taken
from a prick on your finger is put on a test strip that changes color to
show whether you have malaria or not.
Treatment
• The 4 major drug classes currently used to treat malaria include
quinoline-related compounds, antifolates, artemisinin derivatives, and
antimicrobials
• WHO recommends artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs)
for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria caused by the P.
falciparum parasite
Prevention
• Be Aware of the risk, the incubation period, the possibility of delayed
onset, and the main symptoms.
• Make sure that water is not allowed to stagnate in or around your house
• Keep your surroundings clean.
• Avoid being Bitten by mosquitoes, especially between dusk and dawn.
• Take antimalarial drugs (Chemoprophylaxis) when appropriate, to prevent
infection from developing into clinical disease.
• Immediately seek Diagnosis and treatment if a fever develops 1 week or
more after entering an area where there is a malaria risk and up to 3
months (or, rarely, later) after departure from a risk area.