CSC:102 Discrete Structure

Instructor : Khurram Iqbal

Department of Computer Science

COMSATS University, Islamabad
Recap

Lecture No 1

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 What is Discrete Structure?

Department of Computer Science Dr.Eng. Mohammed Alhanjouri 23年 8月 31 3

日
 What is Logic?

 Logic is the study of principles and techniques

of reasoning.
 Science of Reasoning
 Logic n.1. The branch of philosophy concerned
with analysing the patterns of reasoning by
which a conclusion is drawn from a set of
premises, without reference to meaning or
context
(Collins English Dictionary)
 “Logic is the beginning of wisdom, not the
end”

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 What is Proposition?

 A declarative sentence that is either true or

false but not both.
 If a proposition is true, we say that it has a
truth value of "true”.
 If a proposition is false, its truth value is
"false".
 The truth values “True” and “False” are,
respectively, denoted by the letters T and F.

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 Your Turn

UNDERSTANDING STATEMENTS

1. x + 2 is positive.
2. May I come in?
3. Logic is interesting.
4. It is hot today.
5. -1 > 0
6. x + y = 12

{Some of these sentences are statements and others are not.

Can you tell?}

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Can you state the truth value of following statements

1. “3 + 2 = 5” and “Lahore is a city in Pakistan”

2. “The grass is green” or “ It is hot today”

3. “Discrete Mathematics is not difficult to me”

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 Symbolic Representation

Statements are symbolically represented by letters such as p, q, r,...

EXAMPLES
p = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan”
q = “17 is divisible by 3”

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 Today Covered

After completing this lecture, you will be able to

know
 What this Compound Statement?
 What are Logical connectors?
 How to construct a truth table for a
Compound statements.
 Examples

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 Lecture No 2
Compound statements and their Truth
Tables

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 Compound Statement

Simple statements could be used to build a compound statement.

EXAMPLES

1. “3 + 2 = 5” and “Lahore is a city in Pakistan”

2. “The grass is green” or “ It is hot today”

3. “Discrete Mathematics is not difficult to me”

AND, OR, NOT are called LOGICAL CONNECTIVES.

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 Logical Connectives

CONNECTIVE MEANINGS SYMBOL CALLED

Negation not ~ Tilde

Conjunction and  Hat
Disjunction or  Vel
Conditional if…then…  Arrow
Biconditional if and only if  Double arrow

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 Examples

p = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan”

q = “17 is divisible by 3”

p  q = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan and 17 is divisible by 3”

p  q = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan or 17 is divisible by 3”

~p = “It is not the case that Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan” or

simply “Islamabad is not the capital of Pakistan”

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 Application of Propositional
Logic
Translating English Sentences

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 Translating from English to Symbols

Let p = “It is hot”, and q = “ It is sunny”

SENTENCE SYMBOLIC FORM

1. It is not hot. ~p

2. It is hot and sunny. p q

3. It is hot or sunny. q
p
4. It is not hot but sunny. ~ p q
5. It is neither hot nor sunny. ~ p  ~ q

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 Example

Let h = “Zia is healthy”

w = “Zia is wealthy”
s = “Zia is wise”
Translate the compound statements to symbolic form:
1. Zia is healthy and wealthy but not wise. (h  w)  (~s)
2. Zia is not wealthy but he is healthy and wise. ~w  (h  s)
3. Zia is neither healthy, wealthy nor wise. ~h  ~w  ~s

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 Translating from Symbols to English

Let m = “Ali is good in Mathematics”

c = “Ali is a Computer Science student”
Translate the following statement forms into plain English:

1. ~c Ali is not a Computer Science student.

2. c m Ali is a Computer Science student or good in Maths.
3. m  ~ c Ali is good in Maths but not a Computer Science student

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 Truth Table

A convenient method for analyzing a compound

statement is to make a truth table for it.
A truth table specifies the truth value of a
compound proposition for all possible truth values
of its constituent propositions.

The truth values “true” and “false” are

respectively denoted by the letters T and F.

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 Negation(~)

If p is a statement variable, the negation of p, “not

p”, is denoted as “~p”
It has opposite truth value from p i.e.,
if p is true, ~p is false; if p is false, ~p is true.

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 Truth Table for ~ p

p ~p

T F

F T

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 Conjunction ()

If p and q are statements, then the conjunction of

p and q is “p and q”, denoted as “p  q”
It is true when, and only when, both p and q are
true. If either p or q is false, or if both are false,
pq is false.

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 Truth Table for p  q

p q pq

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

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 Switches in Series

Switches Light
P Q Bulb
_ Light
Bulb P Q State
+
Closed Closed On

Closed Open Off

Open Closed Off

open
Open Open Off
closed

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 Switches in Series

Switches Light P Q P Q
Bulb
P Q State T T T
Closed Closed On
T F F
Closed Open Off
F T F
Open Closed Off

Open Open Off F F F

The words closed and on are replaced by T and open and off are
replaced by F

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 Disjunction or Inclusive OR

If p & q are statements, then the disjunction of p

and q is “p or q”, denoted as “p  q”
It is true when at least one of p or q is true and is
false only when both p and q are false.

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 Truth Table for p  q

p q pq

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

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 Switches in Parallel

P
Switches Light
Bulb
_ Q
Light P Q State
+ Bulb
Closed Closed On

Closed Open On

Open Closed On

Open Open Off

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 Switches in Parallel

Switches Light P Q PQ

Bulb
P Q State T T T
Closed Closed On
T F T
Closed Open On
F T T
Open Closed On

Open Open Off F F F

The words closed and on are replaced by T and open and off are
replace by F.
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 Remark

In English language the word or is sometimes used in an

inclusive sense (p or q or both).
Example I shall buy a pen or a book.
The word or is sometimes used in an exclusive sense (p or
q but not both)
Example Tomorrow at 9, I shall be in Lahore or
Islamabad.
While defining a disjunction the word or is used in its
inclusive sense. Thus the symbol  means the “inclusive
or”

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 Exclusive OR

When or is used in its exclusive sense, The

statement “p or q” means “p or q but not both” or
“p or q and not p and q” which translates into
symbols as:
(p q)  ~(p  q)
Which is abbreviated as:
pq
or p XOR q

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 Truth Table for Exclusive OR

p q pq pq ~ (pq) (pq)  ~ (pq)

T T T T F F

T F T F T T

F T T F T T

F F F F T F

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 UPSHOT

p q pq pq pq

T T T T F

T F F T T

F T F T T

F F F F F

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 Examples

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 Examples

1. ~pq
2. ~ p  (q  ~ r)
3. (pq)  ~ (pq)

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How to construct truth table of statement form?

1. Note the distinct statement variables (such as

p, q, r, …) in the statement form.
2. Write all possible combinations of truth values
for the statement variables. Remember that for
n statements variables there are 2n possible
combinations of truth values.
3. Write the truth values for the expression within
the innermost parentheses (expression
evaluated left to right), and then within the
next innermost parentheses and so forth, until
the complete expression is evaluated.
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 Example 1

Write truth table for the statement form ~ p  q

p q ~p ~pq

T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T F

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 Your Turn

Construct the Truth Table for (pq)  ~ (pq)

p q pq pq ~ (pq) (pq)  ~ (pq)

T T T T F F

T F T F T T

F T T F T T

F F F F T F

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 Application of Propositional
Logic
Digital Logic Gates
and
COMBINATIONAL CIRCUIT

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 Digital Logic Gate

The basic electronic components of a digital system are called digital

logic gates.
The word logic indicates the important role of logic in the design of
such circuits & the word digital indicates that the circuits process
discrete, or separate, signals.
Electronic engineers use the language of logic when they refer to
values of signals produced by an electronic switch as being “true” or
“false”.
But they generally use the symbols 1 and 0 rather than T and F to
denote these values.
The symbols 0 and 1 are called bits, short for binary digits.

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 Basic Logic Gate

1. NOT-gate
A NOT-gate (or inverter) is a circuit with one input and one
output signal. If the input signal is 1, the output signal is 0.
Conversely, if the input signal is 0, then the output signal is 1.

Symbolic Representation & Input/Output Table

P R
Input Output
NOT
P R
1 0
0 1
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 2. AND-gate
An AND-gate is a circuit with two input signals and one output
signal.
If both input signals are 1, the output signal is 1. Otherwise the
output signal is 0.
Symbolic representation & Input/Output Table
Input Output
P P Q R
AND R
Q 1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
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 3. OR-gate
An OR-gate is a circuit with two input signals and one output
signal.
If both input signals are 0, then the output signal is 0.
Otherwise, the output signal is 1.
Symbolic representation & Input/Output Table
Input Output
P P Q R
R
OR
1 1 1
Q
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
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 Application of Propositional
Logic

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 Combinational Circuit

A Combinational Circuit is a compound circuit consisting of the basic

logic gates such as NOT, AND, OR.

P
AND
Q
OR

R NOT

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Circuit corresponding to a Boolean Expression

EXERCISE
Construct circuit for the Boolean expression (PQ)  ~R
SOLUTION

P PQ
AND
Q
(P  Q)  ~R
OR
~R
R NOT
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 Finding a Boolean Expression for a Circuit

EXERCISE
Find the Boolean expression for circuit

P
OR
Q

AND

R OR

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SOLUTION
Trace through the circuit from left to right, writing down the output of
each logic gate.

P PQ
OR
Q
(PQ)  (PR)
AND

R OR
PR

Hence (PQ) (PR) is the Boolean expression for this circuit.

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 CONCLUSION

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 Summary

1. What is a statement?
2. How a compound statement is formed.
3. Logical connectives (negation, conjunction, disjunction).
4. How to construct a truth table for a statement form.

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