1.

5 MODEL ORGANISMS
Arabidopsis thaliana Drosophila melanogaster

Escherichia coli
Caenorhabditis elegans

Zebrafish

Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1.5 MODEL ORGANISMS

Kit mutations Neurons Cervical epithelial cells

Review: Chapter 1. Cells: The Fundamental Units of Life

• What is a cell? What is cell theory?

• How can we visualize cells? How do different types of microscopes enhance our ability to see
these cells?
• What structures exist in prokaryotic cells? In eukaryotic cells?
• Describe the major organelles of eukaryotic cells. How might these organelles interact with one
another and help the cell survive and reproduce?
• How did mitochondria and chloroplasts evolve? Why are these organelles significant in
eukaryotic cells?
• What are model organisms? Why are they useful to use as scientists?
• Remember to read the textbook chapters - there are self-check questions and quizzes to help
you study!
Cell Physiology
2. Chemical Components of Cells

Welcome! As you enter:

1. Say hi to your classmates!
Chapter 2. Chemical Components of Cells
Chemical representation has many forms:
Chapter 2. Chemical Components of Cells

The chemistry of life is:

1. Carbon-based.
2. Reactions take place in
an aqueous
environment, and within
the range of
temperatures found on
Earth.
3. Dominated by large
polymers.
4. Tightly regulated.
Chapter 2. Chemical Components of Cells

Chapter Contents

1. CHEMICAL BONDS
2. SMALL MOLECULES IN CELLS
3. MACROMOLECULES IN CELLS
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
A. Atoms: the unit of matter that still retains the property of an element.

1. Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen comprise 96% of the matter in living
organisms (+ Ca, P, K, S = almost 100%).
2. Atoms are made up of subatomic particles – a. positively charged protons,
b. negatively charged electrons, and c. electrically neutral (zero charge) neutrons.
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS

• The number of protons defines the element (Atomic number)

• The number of neutrons influences the weight of the atom (Atomic weight = P + N)
• The number of electrons influences the reactivity of the atom
Question 1: How many protons does Nitrogen (N) have? How many neutrons?
15
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
B. Valence electrons
• Electrons sit in “shells” around the nucleus. Each shell can hold 2 electrons (1st shell) or 8
electrons (2nd shell and up).
• Outermost shell is the valence shell, and atoms are most stable when the valence shell is filled.
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
B. Valence electrons
• Electrons sit in “shells” around the nucleus. Each shell can hold 2 electrons (1st shell) or 8
electrons (2nd shell and up).
• Outermost shell is the valence shell, and atoms are most stable when the valence shell is filled.

Question 2: How many electrons

does H need to be filled? What
about O? What about Mg?
1, 2, 6.
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
B. Valence electrons
• Electrons sit in “shells” around the nucleus. Each shell can hold 2 electrons (1st shell) or 8
electrons (2nd shell and up).
• Outermost shell is the valence shell, and atoms are most stable when the valence shell is filled.
• Atoms will interact with each other to fill their valence shells, resulting in chemical bonding.
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS (Answer: C)
Question 3
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS

C. Chemical bonds

1. Covalent bonds

2. Ionic bonds
Bond strength
3. Hydrogen bonds

4. van der Waals attraction

2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
1. Covalent bonds
a. Results when two atoms share their valence electrons in order to fill their valence
shells. 

H2
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
1. Covalent bonds
b. Electrons can be shared unequally in covalent bonds

Electrons are asymmetrically shared. This difference in

electronegativity between O and H determines the properties of water.
To be continued…
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
1. Covalent bonds
c. Electrons can be shared unequally in covalent bonds due to differences in
electronegativity – what’s that?

Electronegativity is defined as the tendency to attract electrons; more

electronegative atoms have a higher affinity for electrons than other atoms.
• This is based on the number of protons and the size of the electron shell.
2.2
3.44
Polar

Non-Polar
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
1. Covalent bonds
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS (Answer: E)
Question 4

Li
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
2. Ionic bonds
a. Results when one atom completely transfers electrons to another atom.
b. Ions have opposite charges and are attracted to each other.

3.16

0.93
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
2. Ionic bonds
a. Results when one atom completely transfers electrons to another atom.
b. Ions have opposite charges and are attracted to each other.

Compounds
formed by
ionic bonding
= salts
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
2. Ionic bonds
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS (Answer: A)
Question 5

Li
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
3. Hydrogen bonds
a. Is water polar or nonpolar? Why?
b. Water forms weak electrostatic attractions called hydrogen bonds.
c. A hydrogen atom bound to a highly electronegative atom (i.e. N,
O, F) experiences an electrostatic attraction to a nearby
electronegative atom

• Weak individually but strong in

aggregate.
• Hydrogen bonding is what gives
water it’s unique qualities.

Question 6: what are some of the

unique qualities of water?
Adhesion/cohesion, base/acid, high specific heat
capacity, good solvent
Review – Properties of Water

Interaction with others

1. 70% of cells by mass are water. It is vital
because it is an excellent solvent (agent for
dissolving substances).

Why is water an excellent solvent??

Review – Properties of Water

Interaction with others

1. 70% of cells by mass are water. It is vital
because it is an excellent solvent (agent for
dissolving substances).
2. Any charged or polar atom or molecule will be
attracted to water – hydrophilic (“water-loving”)

So ions and polar molecules will stay in

solution because of their interactions
with water’s partial charges.
Review – Properties of Water

Interaction with others

1. 70% of cells by mass are water. It is vital
because it is an excellent solvent (agent for
dissolving substances).
2. Any charged or polar atom or molecule will be
attracted to water – hydrophilic (“water-loving”)
3. Any nonpolar or neutral atom or molecule won’t
interact with water – hydrophobic (“water-
fearing”)
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
Protons (H+) move continuously from one molecule to another in water.

Acids release protons

when dissolved in water

The pH of a liquid is a
measure of the
concentration of
protons (H+) in a
solution pH –
puissance d’hydrogène
(power of hydrogen)

Bases accept protons

when dissolved in water
ammonia water ammonium hydroxyl
ion ion
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS
3. Hydrogen bonds
2.1 CHEMICAL BONDS

4. van der Waals attraction: Weak noncovalent

interaction, due to fluctuating electrical
charges, that come into play between two
atoms that are close to each other.
2.2 SMALL MOLECULES IN CELLS

Using the glossary of your textbook, let’s quickly define the following:

• Atom: The smallest particle of an element that still retains its distinctive chemical
properties; consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
negatively charged electrons.
• Molecule: Group of atoms joined together by covalent bonds.
• Organic molecule: Chemical compound that contains carbon and hydrogen.
• Macromolecule: Polymer built from covalently linked subunits; includes proteins,
nucleic acids, and polysaccharides with a molecular mass greater than a few
thousand daltons.
Review: Chapter 2. Chemical Components of Cells

• What are the major elements found in cells? How and why are they joined
together as molecules?
• What is the difference between a covalent and ionic bond? A polar and a
nonpolar bond?
• What are the major macromolecules in the cell? What are they made of? Can
you identify these structures?
• How is it possible that weak, non-covalent interactions can lead to
determining the structure of a macromolecule?
Review – Chemical bonds and groups
Review – The chemical properties of water
Review – Weak noncovalent bonds