LIFE PROCESSES ARE THE BASIC

FUNTIONS PERFORMED BY LIVING

ORGANISMS TO MAINTAIN THEIR LIFE ON
THE EARTH.
THE CHARACTERSTICS OF LIVING BEINGS ARE:-

• LIVING BEING CAN FREELY MOVE BY THEMSELVES.

• LIVING THINGS NEED FOOD, AIR AND WATER.
• LIVING THINGS CAN GROW.
• LIVING THINGS ARE SENSITIVE.
• LIVING THINGS CAN RESPIRE.
• LIVING THINGS CAN EXCRETE.
• LIVING THINGS CAN REPRODUCE.
 NUTRITION
IT IS A PROCESS OF INTAKE OF NUTRIENTS (LIKE
CARBOHYDRATES, FATS, PROTEINS, MINERALS,
VITAMINS AND WATER) BY AN ORAGANISM AS
WELL AS UTILIZATION OF THESE NUTRIENTS BY
THE ORGANISMS.

• MODES OF NUTRITION-
1. AUTOTROPHIC
2. HETEROTROPHIC.
1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
IT IS THAT MODE OF NUTRITION IN WHICH AN
ORGANISM SYNTHESIZES ITS OWN FOOD BY THE
SIMPLEST INORGANIC MATERIALS.

2. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
IT IS THAT MODE OF NUTRITION IN WHICH AN
ORGANISM CANNOT SYNTHESIZES ITS OWN FOOD
FROM INORGANIC MATERIALS. THEY DEPEND ON
OTHER ORGANISMS FOR THEIR FOOD.
THEY ARE OF THREE TYPES – SAPROTROPHIC,
PARASITIC AND HOLOZOIC NUTRITION.
1. SAPROTROPHIC NUTRITION
IN THIS TYPE OF NUTRITION, ORGANISM FEED
ON DEAD AND DECAYING MATTER FOR
THEIR FOOD.

2. PARASITIC NUTRITION
IN THIS TYPE OF NUTRITION, ORGANISM FEED
ON BODY OF ANOTHER LIVING ORGANISM
WITHOUT KILLING IT.

3. HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
IN THIS TYPE OF NUTRITION, ORGANISM FEED
ON ORGANIC MATTER FOR ITS FOOD.
• NUTRITION IN PLANT
PLANT PREPARE THEIR FOOD BY THE PROCESS OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS. DURING THIS PROCESS THEY
USE WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE AND SUNLIGHT
ENERGY IN PRESENCE OF CHLOROPHYLL. THEY
RELEASE GLUCOSE AND OXYGEN AFTER THIS
PROCESS. HERE IS THE FORMULA:-

CHLOROPHYLL
6CO2 + 6H2O + LIGHT C6H12O6 + 6O2
(PHOTOSYNTHESIS)
ENERGY
• THE STORED FORM OF FOOD IN THE PLANT IS
STARCH.
SO NOW WE CAN DESCRIBE THAT PHOTOSYNTHESIS
TAKES PLACE THROUGH THE FOLLOWING
PROCESSES :-
1. ABSORBTION OF SUNLIGHT BY CHLOROPHYLL.
2. CONVERSION OF LIGHT ENERGY INTO CHEMICAL
ENERGY AND, SPLITTING OF WATER MOLECULE
INTO HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN BY LIGHT ENERGY.
3. REDUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE BY HYDROGEN
TO FORM CARBOHYDRATE.
• NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
ANIMALS OBTAIN THEIR FOOD FROM PLANTS OR
OTHER ANIMALS(WHICH THEY EAT).
SOME PLANTS ARE ALSO THERE WHO EATS INSECT.
FOR EG ., PITCHER PLANT AND VENUS FLY TRAP.
• THE STORED FORM OF FOOD
IN ANIMALS ARE FATS AND GLYCEROL.
THEY ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THREE GROUPS ON THE
BASIS OF THEIR FOOD HABITS :-
i. HERBIVORES
ii. CARNIVORS
iii. OMNIVORS
DIFFERENT STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF NUTRITION IN
ANIMALS:-
1. INGESTION (THE PROCESS OF TAKING FOOD)
2. DIGESTION (THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE FOOD
BROKEN DOWN INTO SMALL WATER SOLUBLE
MOLECULE)
3. ABSORPTION (THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE
INTESTINAL WALL INTO BLOOD STREAM)
4. ASSIMILATION (THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE
ABSORBED FOOD IN BY BODY CELLS FOR ENERGY,
FOR REPAIRING, FOR GROWTH)
5. EGESTION (THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE
UNDIGESTED FOOD IS REMOVED FROM THE BODY)
NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS

FIRSTLY, THE FOOD GOES INTO

THE MOUTH BY THE HELP OF
HAND. THE DIGESTION OF
FOOD BEGANS IN MOUTH
ONLY. THE BUCCAL CAVITY
CONTAINS TEETH, TOUNGE,
AND SALIVARY GLANDS. THE
TEETH CUT THE FOOD INTO
SMALL PIECES, CHEW AND
GRIND IT. TEETH HELP
IN PHYSICAL DIGESTION OF
FOOD. THE SALIVARY GLANDS
PRODUCE SALIVA. OUR TOUNGE
HELPS IN MIXING THE FOOD WITH
SALIVA. SALIVA CONTAINS AN
ENZYME, SALIVARY AMYLASE
WHICH DIGESTS STARCH
PRESENT IN THE FOOD INTO
MALTOS (SUGAR). SALIVA HELPS IN
CHEMICAL DIGESTION OF
THE FOOD. THE PARTIALLY
DIGESTED FOOD MOVES INTO
OESOPHAGUS, THE WALLS OF
OESOPHAGUS START
CONTRACTION AND EXPANSION
MOVEMENT (ALSO CALLED
PERISTALIC MOVEMENT) AND THE
PARTIALLY DIGESTED FOOD PUSHED
TOWARDS THE J-SHAPED ORGAN
STOMACH. STOMACH CONSISTS
OF THREE TUBULAR GLAND
WHICH SECRETES GASTRIC
JUICE. IT CONTAINS THREE
SUBSTANCES:- HYDROCHLO-
-RIC ACID, GLANDULAR
PEPSIN AND MUCUS. THE
GASTRIC JUICE IS ACIDIC
IN NATURE. IN THIS ACIDIC
MEDIUM, ENZYME PEPSIN
BEGINS THE DIGESTION OF
PROTEINS PRESENT IN FOOD TO
FORM SMALLER MOLECULES.
THE FUNCTION OF HYDROCHL-
-ORIC ACID IS TO CREATE AN
ACIDIC MEDIUM FOR PEPSIN
TO GET ACTIVE. HYDROCHL-
-ORIC ACID ALSO KILLS
MANY BACTERIA WHICH
ENTER IN OUR STOMACH
THROUGH FOOD. MUCUS
HELPS IN PROTECTING THE
INNER LININGS OF STOMACH
FROM CORROSIVE NATURE, OF ITS
OWN SECRETION, HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. THE EXIT OF FOOD FROM
THE STOMACH IS REGULATED
BY A ‘SPHINTER MUSCLE’. THE
PARTIALLY DIGESTED FOOD
THEN ENTER IN DUODENUM
WHERE IT RECIEVES THE
SECRETIONS OF TWO
GLANDS i.e. LIVER AND
PANCREAS. LIVER SECRETES
BILE JUICE. BILE MAKES THE
ACIDIC FOOD, COMING FROM
THE STOMACH, ALKALINE SO
THAT PANCREATIC ENZYMES CAN
ACT ON IT. BILE SALTS BREAK THE
FATS PRESENT IN IT INTO SMALLER
GLOBULES MAKING IT EASY TO
DIGEST. PANCREAS A LARGE
GLAND, SECRETES PANCREATIC
JUICE WHICH SECRETES
THREE DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
LIKE PANCREATIC AMYLASE,
TRYPSIN AND LIPASE. ENZYME
PANCREATIC AMYLASE BREAK
DOWN THE STARCH MOLECULE
,ENZYME TRYPSIN DIGESTS THE
PROTEINS, AND ENZYME LIPASE
BREAKS DOWN THE
EMULSIFIED FATS. THE
WALLS OF SMALL
INTESTINE CONTAIN
GLAND WHICH SECRETES
INTESTINAL JUICE
WHICH CONTAINS A
NUMBER OF ENZYMES
WHICH COMPLETE THE
DIGESTION OF COMPLEX
CARBOHRDRATES INTO
GLUCOSE, PROTEINS
INTO AMINO ACIDS AND
FATS INTO FATTY ACID
AND GLYCEROL.
THE SMALL INTESTINE IS
THE MAIN REGION FOR THE
ABSORBTION OF FOOD.
SMALL INTESTINE SECRET
INTESTINAL JUICE WHICH
BREAK DOWN PROTEINS
AND FATS. AFTER THE
DIGESTION, THE DIGESTED
FOOD PASSES THROUGH
SMALL INTESINE AND GO
INTO OUR BLOOD (VIA
BLOOD VESSELS). THE
SMALL INTESTINE HAS
MILLIONS OF A LARGE
FINGER LIKE PROJECTIONS
CALLED VILLI. IT PROVIDE
LARGE SURFACE AREA TO
THE DIGESTED FOOD TO
PASS ON. THE BODY CELLS
ABSORB ALL THE ENERGY
AND GROWTH FROM FOOD,
IN LARGE INTESTINE. THE
UNDIGESTED FOOD OR
STOOL COMES OUT OF THE
BODY THROUGH ANUS. THE
EXIT FAECES ARE
CONTROLLED BY ANAL
SPHINTER.
RESPIRATION
RESPIRATION IS A PROCESS OF RELEASING
ENERGY FROM FOOD , INSIDE THE CELLS OF
OUR BODY.

RESPIRATION IS NECESSARY/ ESSENTIAL FOR

LIFE BECAUSE IT PROVIDES ENERGY FOR
CARRYING OUT ALL LIFE PROCESSES.
THAT’S WHY IT IS CALLED AS CELLULAR
RESPIRATION.

RESPIRATION CAN BE WRITTEN IN THE FORM

OF A WORD EQUATION :-
• FOOD + OXYGEN CO2 + H2O + ENERGY
Q. HOW ENERGY RELEASED DURING
RESPIRATION , IS STORED ?
Ans. THE ENERGY RELEASED DURING
RESPIRATION IS STORED IN THE FORM OF
ATP(ADENOSINE TRI-PHOSPHATE) AND
ADP(ADENOSINE DI-PHOSPHATE) MOLECULES
IN THE CELLS OF OUR BODY.

Q. WHAT IS GLUCOSE?
Ans. GLUCOSE IS C6H12O6. IT IS A SIX CARBON
ATOM COMPOUND. IT IS THE SIMPLE FOOD
WHICH IS OXIDISED IN THE CELLS OF
ORGANISMS DURING RESPIRATION.
Q. WHAT IS GLYCOLYSIS ?
Ans. THE OXIDATION OF GLUCOSE INTO PYRUVIC
ACID (OR PYRUVATE) IS GLYCOLYSIS.

Q. WHAT IS PYRUVIC ACID (OR PYRUVATE) ?

Ans. PYRUVIC ACID (OR PYRUVATE) IS THREE
CARBON ATOM. ITS FORMULA IS KETONIC
CARBOXYLIC ACID.

Q. WHAT IS LACTIC ACID?

Ans. LACTIC ACID IS ALSO A THREE CARBON
ATOM COMPOUND. IT IS ALSO CALLED AS
LACTATE. ITS FORMULA IS HYDROXY
CARBOXYLIC ACID.
 THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF RESPIRATION:-
1. AEROBIC RESPIRATION
2. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
1.) THE RESPIRATION WHICH TAKES PLACE
IN PRESENCE OF OXYGEN.
2.) THE FOOD PARTICLES BROKE DOWN
COMPLETELY BROKE DOWN INTO SMALL
MOLECULES.
3.) MITOCHONDRIA ARE THE SITES OF
AEROBIC RESPIRATION IN THE CELLS.
4.) IT GENERALLY RELEASE HIGH/MORE
ENERGY OF 38 ATP.
5.) THE END PRODUCTS ARE AEROBIC
RESPIRATION ARE CARBON DIOXIDE AND
WATER.
ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION
1.) THE RESPIRATION WHICH TAKES PLACE IN
ABSENCE OF OXYGEN.
2.) THE FOOD PARTICLES BROKE DOWN DO
NOT COMPLETELY BROKE DOWN INTO
SMALL MOLECULES.
3.) YEAST AND MUSCLE TISSUE ARE THE
SITES OF ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IN CELLS.
4.) IT GENERALLY RELEASE LOW/LESS
ENERGY OF MAXIMUM 3 ATP.
5.) THE END PRODUCTS ARE ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION ARE ETHANOL, CARBON
DIOXIDE AND LACTIC ACID.
HENCE, THERE IS ONE SIMILARITY BETWEEN
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION i.e. IN
BOTH CASES, ENERGY IS PRODUCED BY THE
BREAKDOWN OF FOOD LIKE GLUCOSE.

HERE ARE THE THREE PATHWAYS OF BREAK

DOWN OF FOOD INTO SMALLER MOLECULES :-
 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
DIFFUSION IS NET PASSIVE MOVEMENT OF PARTICLES
(i.e. ATOMS, IONS OR MOLECULES) FROM A REGION
OF HIGHER CONCENTRATION TO A REGION OF
LOWER CONCENTRATION UNTILL BOTH REGION
BECOME UNIFORM.

 PLANTS GET OXYGEN BY THE PROCESS OF

DIFFUSION.
1. RESPIRATION IN ROOTS = THE ROOTS OF OF A
PLANT TAKE THE OXYGEN REQUIRED FOR
RESPIRATION FROM THE AIR PRESENT IN
BETWEEN THE SOIL PARTICLES BY THE PROCESS
OF DIFFUSION, WITH THE HELP OF
ROOT HAIR ( WHICH ARE EXTENSION OF EPIDERMAL
CELLS).

2. RESPIRATION IN STEMS = THE STEMS OF PLANTS

HAVE STOMATA. SO, THE EXCHANGE OF
RESPIRATORY GASES IN THE STEMS OF PLANT
TAKES PLACE THROUGH STOMATA. THE OXYGEN
FROM AIR DIFFUSES INTO THE STEM OF A PLANT
THROUGH STOMATA AND REACHES ALL CELLS
FOR RESPIRATION. THE CARBON DIOXIDE GAS
PRODUCED, DURING RESPIRATION, DIFFUSES OUT
INTO AIR BY SAME PROCESS. THE HARD AND
WOODY
STEMS DO NOT HAVE STOMATA, SO, THEY HAVE
LENTICLES ON THEIR BARK FOR GASEOUS
EXCHANGE.

3. RESPIRATION IN LEAVES = THE

LEAVES OF PLANT RESPIRES THROUGH TINY
PORES CALLED STOMATA. RESPIRATION
OCCURS IN LEAVES DURING BOTH DAY AND
NIGHT TIME.
NOTE :-
1. OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE ARE
RESPIRATORY GASES.

RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
2. AMOEBA (SIMPLEST MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISM) RESPIRES THROUGH ITS CELL
MEMBRANE.
3. EARTHWORM RESPIRES THROUGH SKIN.
4. AQUATIC ANIMALS SUCH AS FISH, MUSSELS,
PRAWNS etc., RESPIRES THROUGH GILLS.
5. LAND ANIMALS SUCH AS MAN, DOG etc.,
RESPIRES THROUGH LUNGS.
6. INSECTS RESPIRES THROUGH TRACHEAE.
ALL RESPIRATORY ORGANS HAVE THESE
COMMON FEATURES:-
1. ALL RESPIRATORY ORGANS HAVE LARGE
SURFACE AREA TO GET ENOUGH OXYGEN.
2. ALL RESPIRATORY ORGANS HAVE THIN WALLS
FOR EASY DIFFUSION AND EXCHANGE OF
RESPIRATORY GASES.
3. ALL RESPIRATORY ORGANS ARE RICHLY
SUPPLIED IN BLOOD CAPPILARIES FOR
TRANSPORTING RESPIRATORY GASES.

Q. WHY DIFFUSION IS INSUFFICIENT TO MEET THE

OXYGEN REQUIREMENT OF LARGE MULTI-
CELLULAR ORGANISMS ?
Ans. DIFFUSION IS INSUFFICIENT TO MEET THE
OXYGEN REQUIREMENT OF LARGE MULTI-
CELLULAR ORGANISM BECAUSE :-
1. VOLUME OF HUMAN BODY IS SO BIG THAT THE
OXYGEN CAN NOT DIFFUSE INTO ALL THE CELLS
OF THE HUMAN BODY.
2. DIFFUSION IS ALSO A VERY SLOW PROCESS AND
HUMAN BODY HAVE COMPLEX ORGANS, SO, IT
WILL TAKE TIME TO MAKE LOT OF OXYGEN
AVAILABLE TO ALL THE BODY CELLS.

DO YOU KNOW ?
HUMAN BLOOD HAVE RESPIRATORY PIGMENT
CALLED HAEMOGLOBIN WHICH CARRIES OXYGEN
FROM THE LUNGS TO ALL BODY CELLS VERY
EFFICIENTLY.
RESPIRATION IN HUMAN
HUMAN BODY HAVE LOTS OF RESPIRATORY
UNITS CALLED ALVEOLI. ALVEOLIs ARE SMALL
BRONCHIOLES OR POUCH LIKE AIR SACS AT
THE END OF EACH BRONCHIOLES.

( REFER ONLY THIS DIAGRAM

FOR DRAWING IN EXAMS,
DO NOT PRACTICE ANY
OTHER DIAGRAM)
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION
THE FUNCTION OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
IS TO BREATHE IN OXYGEN FOR RESPIRATION
AND BREATHE OUT CARBON DIOXIDE
PRODUCED BY RESPIRATION. THE GASEOUS
EXCHANGE TAKES PLACE IN LUNGS. THE
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM BEGINS
WITH OUR NOSE. THE AIR FROM RESPIRATION
IS DRAWN INTO OUR BODY THROUGH THE
NOSTRILS PRESENT IN THE NOSE. THE AIR
THEN GOES INTO NASAL PASSAGE THE NASAL
PASSAGE IS SEPARATED FROM THE BUCCAL
CAVITY BY A HARD, BONY PALATE CALLED
EPIGLOTTIS, SO THAT, WE CAN TAKE AIR EVEN
WHEN WE ARE EATING FOOD.
THE NASAL PASSAGE IS LINED WITH FINE HAIR
AND MUCUS i.e. WHEN WE INHALE, THEN MANY
DUST PARTICLE AND OTHER IMPURITIES
PRESENT IN AIR ARE TRAPPED BY NASAL
HAIR AND MUCUS, SO THAT CLEAN AIR GOES
INTO THE LUNGS. THE PART OF THROAT
BETWEEN MOUTH AND WIND PIPE IS CALLED
PHARYNX. THE WIND PIPE IS COMMONLY
KNOWN AS TRACHEA. TRACHEA DO NOT
COLLAPSE EVEN IF THERE IS NO AIR, DUE TO
THE PRESENCE OF RINGS OF CARTILAGES.
AT THE UPPER END TRACHEA HAS A VOICE
BOX CALLED LARYNX. WHEN GO TO ITS
LOWER END, IT DIVIDES INTO TWO BROCHI.
EACH BRONCHI IS CONNECTED TO A LUNG.
THE LUNGS LIE IN THE CHEST CAVITY ( OR
THORAIC CAVITY) WHICH IS SEPERATED FROM
THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY ( OR DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM) BY A MUSCULAR PARTITION CALLED
DIAPHRAGM. THE LUNGS ARE COVERED BY
TWO THIN MEMBRANE CALLED PLEURA.
THE LUNGS ARE ENCLOSED IN A RIB CAGE.
EACH BRONCHUS DIVIDES IN LUNGS TO FORM
BRONCHIOLES. THE SMALL BRONCHIOLES
HAVE TINY AIR-SACS AT THEIR ENDS. THESE
POUCH LIKE AIR SACS ARE ALVEOLI. IS IS THE
ALVEOLI IN WHICH THE GASEOUS EXCHANGE
ACTUALLY TAKES PLACE. THE FEATURES OF
ALVEOLIES ARE WRITTEN ABOVE ( go to
Slide 31 ).
WHEN WE BREATHE IN AIR ( OXYGEN ), THEN
OUR DIAPHRAGM CONTRACTS AND CHEST
CAVITY EXPANDS. DUE TO THIS EXPANSION,
THERE IS A INCREASE IN THE VOLUME INSIDE
AND DECREASE IN THE AIR PRESSURE INSIDE
THE CHEST AND THE AIR FROM OUTSIDE,
WITH A VERY HIGH PRESSURE, RUSHES INTO
THE LUNGS THROUGH NOSTRILS, TRACHEA
AND BRONCHI. IN THIS WAY, THE ALVEOLI
FILLS WITH AIR. THE BLOOD CAPPILARIES,
ASSOCIATED WITH ALVEOLI, CARRYS OXYGEN
INTO ALL PART OF THE BODY WITH THE HELP
OF HAEMOGLOBIN. AS THE BLOOD PASSES
INTO THE BODY, THE OXYGEN DIFFUSES OUT
INTO THE CELLS OF BODY TISSUES.
THIS OXYGEN COMBINES WITH THE DIGESTED
FOOD (GLUCOSE) PRESENT IN THE CELLS TO
RELEASE ENERGY. CARBON DIOXIDE GAS IS
PRODUCED AS A WASTE PRODUCT DURING
RESPIRATION IN THE CELLS OF OUR BODY
TISSUE. THE CARBON DIOXIDE DIFFUSES INTO
THE BLOOD, DUE TO ITS HIGHER
CONCENTRATION IN BODY TISSUE. BLOOD
CARRIES CARBON DIOXIDE BACK TO LUNG
WHERE IT DIFFUSES IN THE ALVEOLI. WHEN WE
EXHALE, THE DIAPHRAGM RELAX AND THE
CHEST CAVITY CONTRACTS AND BECOME
SMALLER. DUE TO THIS CONTRACTION, THE
CARBON DIOXIDE IS PUSHED OUT OF LUNGS.
IN THIS WAY,THE PROCESS GASEOUS
EXCHANGE IS COMPLETED IN HUMAN
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
Q. WHAT IS RESIDUAL VOLUME ?
Ans. RESIDUAL VOLUME IS THE AMOUNT OF AIR,
WHICH REMAINS IN PERSON’S LUNGS
AFTER
FULLY EXHALING.

Q. WHY RESIDUAL VOLUME IS MEASURED ?

Ans. DOCTORS USUALLY MEASURES RESIDUAL
VOLUME OF A PERSON TO CHECK HOW WELL
THE LUNGS OF A PERSON ARE FUNCTIONING.

Q. HOW RESIDUAL VOLUME IS MEASURED ?

Ans. RESIDUAL VOLUME IS MEASURED BY A GAS
DILUTION TEST.
 TRANSPORTATION

TRANSPORTATION IS A LIFE PROCESS WHERE SUBSTANCES SYNTHESIZED OR ABSORBED IN ONE PART OF THE BODY ARE CARRIED
TO OTHER PARTS OF THE BODY.
 TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS IS LESS
ELABORATE THAN IN ANIMAL. PLANTS ARE
LESS ACTIVE, SO THEIR CELLS DO NOT NEED TO
BE SUPPLIED WITH MATERIAL SO QUICKLY.
THE PLANTS HAVE TWO TRANSPORT SYSTEM:-
1. XYLEM
2. PHLOEM
IMPORTANT POINTS:-

• THE EVAPORATION / LOSS OF WATER FROM THE AERIAL

PARTS OF A PLANT IS CALLED TRANSPIRATION DUE TO
SUCTION PULL.

• THE TRANSPORT OF FOOD FROM THE LEAVES TO OTHER

PARTS OF PLANT IS CALLED TRANSLOCATION.
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT OF WATER AND
MINERALS IN PLANTS
TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS IN PLANTS
TAKES PLACE THROUGH XYLEM TISSUE. THE VESSELS
AND TRACHEIDS OF THE ROOTS, STEMS AND LEAVES
ARE INTERCONNECTED TO FORM A CONTINUOUS
SYSTEM OF WATER CONDUCTING CHANNELS
REACHING ALL PARTS OF THE PLANT. AT THE ROOTS,
CELLS IN CONTACT WITH SOIL
TAKE UP IONS. THIS CREATES
A DIFFERENCE IN THE
CONCENTRATION OF THESE
IONS BETWEEN ROOTS AND
SOIL. WATER, THEREFORE,
MOVES INTO THE ROOT FROM
THE SOIL TO ELIMINATE THIS
DIFFERENCE. THIS MEANS THAT
THERE IS STEADY MOVEMENT
OF WATER INTO ROOT XYLEM,
CREATING A COLUMN OF WATER THAT IS STEADILY
PUSHED UPWARDS. HOWEVER, THIS PRESSURE IS
NOT ENOUGH TO MOVE WATER OVER HEIGHTS. SO,
PLANTS USE ANOTHER STRATEGY TO MOVE WATER
IN THE XYLEM UPWARDS TO THE HIGHEST POINT. IT
IS DUE TO THE PROCESS OF TRANSPIRATION.
PROVIDED THAT THE PLANT HAS AN ADEQUATE
SUPPLY OF WATER, THE WATER WHICH IS LOST
THROUGH THE STOMATA IS
REPLACED BY WATER FROM
THE XYLEM VESSELS IN THE
LEAF. IN FACT, EVAPORATION
OF WATER MOLECULES FROM
THE CELLS OF A LEAF CREATES
A SUCTION PULL WHICH PULLS
WATER FROM THE XYLEM CELL
OF ROOTS.
Q. FROM WHICH AERIAL PART OF PLANTS, THERE IS LOSS
OF WATER / TRANSPIRATION ?
Ans. STOMATA

Q. WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PROCESS OF

TRANSPIRATION IN PLANTS ?
Ans.(1) TRANSPIRATION HELPS IN ABSORPTION AND
UPWARD MOVEMENT OF WATER AND MINERALS
DISSOLVED IN IT FROM ROOTS TO THE LEAVES.
(2) IT ALSO HELPS IN TEMPERATURE REGULATION.

Q. WHY EFFECT OF ROOT PRESSURE IN TRANSPORT OF

WATER IS MORE IMPORTANT AT NIGHT ?
Ans. DURING THE DAY TIME STOMATA ARE OPEN THE
TRANSPIRATION PULL BECOMES THE MAJOR DRIVING
FORCE IN THE MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE XYLEM.
Q. WHAT IS OSMOSIS ?
Ans. OSMOSIS IS THE MOVEMENT OF WATER
THROUGH A SEMI-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
FROM REGION OF HIGH WATER
CONCENTRATION TO A REGION OF LOW WATER
CONCENTRATION TENDING TO EQUALISE THE
CONCENTRATIONS OF THE WATER.

Q. WHAT IS OSMOTIC PRESSURE ?

Ans. OSMOTIC PRESSURE IS THE FORCE CAUSED
BY A SOLUTION PASSING THROUGH A SEMI-
PERMEABLE SURFACE BY OSMOSIS, WHICH IS
EQUAL TO THE FORCE REQUIRED TO RESIST
THE SOLUTION FROM PASSING BACK THROUGH
THE SURFACE.
Q. WHAT IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSPORTATION OF
SUBSTANCE XYLEM AND PHLOEM ?
Ans.
XYLEM
(1) WATER AND MINERALS
ARE TRANSPORTED.
(2) NO ENERGY IS NEEDED. IT
IS A PASSIVE TRANSPORT.
(3) MATERIALS MOVE ONLY IN
UPWARD DIRECTION ( i.e.
IN UNIDIRECTIONAL
PATHWAY).
(4) VESSELS AND TRACHEIDS
ARE INVOLVED IN
TRANSPORTATION.
(5) TRANSPIRATION PROCESS
TAKES PLACE.
PHLOEM
(1) FOOD (STARCH) AND
HORMONES ARE
TRANSPORTED.
(2) ENERGY FROM ATP IS
NEEDED. IT IS AN ACTIVE
TRANSPORT.
(3) MATERIALS MOVE IN BOTH
UPWARD AND DOWNWARD
DIRECTION ( i.e. IN MULTI-
DIRECTIONAL PATHWAY)
(4) COMPANION CELLS AND
SIEVE TUBES ARE INVOLVED
IN TRANSPORTATION.
(5) TRANSLOCATION
PROCESS TAKES PLACE.
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION OF
FOOD AND MINERALS IN PLANT
TRANSPORT OF FOOD AND MINERALS
IN PLANTS IS DUE TO PHLOEM TISSUE.
BESIDES THE PRODUCTS OF PHOTO-
-SYNTHESIS, PHLOEM ALSO
TRANSPORTS AMINO ACIDS AND
OTHER SUBSTANCES. THESE
SUBSTANCE ARE ESPECIALLY
DELIVERED TO THE STORAGE ORGANS
OF ROOTS, FRUITS AND SEEDS AND TO
GROWING ORGANS. TRANSLOCATION
OF FOOD AND OTHER SUBSTANCES
TAKES PLACE IN SEIVE TUBES WITH
THE HELP OF ADJACENT COMPANION
CELLS BOTH IN UPWARD AND
DOWNWARD DIRECTIONS.
TRANSLOCATION IN THE PHLOEM IS
ACHIEVED BY UTILISING ENERGY.
MATERIAL LIKE SUCROSE IS
TRANSFERRED INTO PHLOEM TISSUE
USING ENERGY FROM ATP. THIS
INCREASES THE OSMOTIC PRESSURE
CAUSING WATER TO MOVE INTO IT.
THIS PRESSURE MOVES THE
MATERIAL IN THE PHLOEM TO TISSUES
WHICH HAVE LESS PRESSURE. THIS
ALLOWS THE PHLOEM TO MOVE
MATERIAL ACCORDING TO THE
PLANT’S NEEDS.
 TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS
TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS TAKES PLACE
THROUGH, A RED COLOURED LIQUID CALLED,
BLOOD. BLOOD IS RED BECAUSE IT CONTAINS A
PIGMENT CALLED HAEMOGLOBIN. BLOOD IS A
CONNECTIVE TISSUE.

THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF BLOOD ARE:-

1. PLASMA
2. RED BLOOD CELLS (RBC)
3. WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBC)
4. PLATELETS
WE WILL BREIFLY STUDY ABOUT FOUR COMPONENTS OF
BLOOD:-

1. PLASMA = IT IS THE LIQUID PART ( OR FLUID PART ) OF BLOOD. IT

IS ALSO CALLED FLUID MATRIX. IT CONTAINS ABOUT 90% OF
WATER. IT CONTAINS DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES SUCH AS
PROTEINS, DIGESTED FOOD, COMMON SALT, WASTE PRODUCTS
AND HORMONES. RBC, WBC AND PLATELETS KEEP FLOATING IN
IT.
2. RED BLOOD CELLS = THESE CELLS ARE RED IN COLOUR DUE TO
THE PRESENCE OF HAEMOGLOBIN IN IT. RED BLOOD CELLS ARE
CARRIERS OF OXYGEN. THEY CARRY OXYGEN FROM LUNGS TO
ALL THE CELLS OF THE BODY. THESE CELLS DO NOT HAVE
NUCLEI. THAT’S WHY THESE CELLS HAVE TO BE MADE QUICKLY
BECAUSE THEY LIVE FOR A VERY SHORT LIFE SPAN. ABOUT
THREE MILLION OF BLOOD CELLS DIE EVERY DAY BUT FOUR
TIMES OF THAT NUMBER ARE MADE IN THE BONE MARROW EVERY
DAY. MOST OF THE CELLS IN BLOOD ARE RED BLOOD CELLS.
3. WHITE BLOOD CELLS = THESE CELLS FIGHT INFECTION AND
PROTECT US FROM DISEASES. SOME WHITE BLOOD CELLS EAT UP
BACTERIA, WHICH CAUSES DISEASES. SOME OTHER WHITE
BLOOD CELLS PREPARE ‘ANTI-BODIES’ WHICH ARE RESPONSIBLE
FOR PROVIDING US IMMUNITY, FROM WHICH WE ARE PROTECTED
FROM DISEASES. SO BY ABOVE WE CAN SAY THAT “WHITE BLOOD
CELLS ARE THE SOLDIERS OF THE BODY.” THESE CELLS HAVE
NUCLEUS IN THEM. WHITE BLOOD CELLS ARE MUCH SMALLER
THAN RED BLOOD CELLS.

4. PLATELETS = THEY ARE THE TINY FRAGMENTS OF SPECIAL CELLS

FORMED IN THE BONE MARROW. PLATELETS DO NOT HAVE
NUCLEI. PLATELETS HELPS IN COAGULATION OF BLOOD ( OR
CLOTTING OF BLOOD ). ALL THE BLOOD CELLS ARE MADE IN
BONE MARROW FROM THE CELLS CALLED STEM CELLS.
FUNCTION OF BLOOD :-

1. BLOOD CARRIES OXYGEN FROM LUNGS TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF

THE BODY.
2. BLOOD CARRIES CARBON DIOXIDE FROM THE BODY CELLS TO
THE LUNGS FOR BREATHING OUT.
3. BLOOD CARRIES DIGESTED FOOD FROM THE SMALL INTESTINE
TO ALL THE PARTS OF THE BODY.
4. BLOOD CARRIES HORMONES FROM THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS TO
DIFFERENT ORGANS OF THE BODY.
5. BLOOD CARRIES A WASTE PRODUCT CALLED UREA FROM THE
LIVER TO THE KIDNEYS FOR THE EXCRETION.
6. BLOOD PROTECTS THE BODY FROM DISEASES. THIS IS BECAUSE
WHITE BLOOD CELLS KILL THE BACTERIA AND OTHER GERMS
WHICH CAUSE DISEASES.
7. BLOOD REGULATES THE BODY TEMPERATURE. THIS IS BECAUSE
THE BLOOD CAPILLARIES IN OUR SKIN HELP TO KEEP OUR BODY
TEMPERATURE CONSTANT AT ABOUT 37OC.
TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN BEINGS:-
THE MAIN TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGS IS THE
‘HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM’. THE HUMAN
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM CONSISTS OF HEART (WHICH
PUMPS AND RECEIVES THE BLOOD) AND THE BLOOD
VESSELS (THROUGH WHICH BLOOD FLOWS IN THE BODY).

IN BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM, BLOOD FLOWS INTO

THREE TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS :-
1. ARTERIES
2. VEINS
3. CAPPILARIES

THUS, IN HUMAN BEINGS VARIOUS SUBSTANCES ARE

TRANSPORTED THROUGH ‘BLOOD’ AND ‘LYMPH’.
:- ARTERIES VEINS CAPILLARIES
(1) THEY ARE THICK (1) THEY ARE THIN (1) THEY ARE THIN
WALLED BLOOD VESSELS. WALLED BLOOD VESSELS. WALLED, NARROW TUBES.

(2) THEY CARRY BLOOD (2) THEY CARRY BLOOD (2) THEY CONNECT
FROM HEART TO ALL FROM ALL PART OF BODY ARTERIES TO VEINS.
PART OF THE BODY. TO THE HEART.
(3) BLOOD EMERGES (3) BLOOD FLOWING IN (3) BLOOD FLOWING IN
FROM HEART UNDER HIGH THEM ARE IN LOW THEM HAVE VERY LOW
PRESSURE. PRESSURE. PRESSURE.
(4) THEY CARRY (4) THEY CARRY DE- (4) THEY ARE THE MIXTURE
OXYGENATED BLOOD. OXYGENATED BLOOD. OF BOTH OXGENATED AND
DE-OXYGENATED BLOOD.

(5) THEY DO NOT HAVE (5) THEY HAVE VALVES IN (5) THEY DO NOT HAVE
VALVES IN THEM. THEM. VALVES IN THEM.

(6) ONLY PULMONARY (6) ONLY PULMONARY (6) IN THE CASE OF

ARTERY IS ONLY ARTERY VEIN IS ONLY VEIN WHICH CAPILLARIES, ALL
WHICH CARRIES DE- CARRIES OXYGENATED CAPILLARIES WORK
OXYGENATED BLOOD. BLOOD. SAME.
 HUMAN HEART
Aortic Valve

V4 V3 V1

V2
Bicuspid or Mitral
Tricuspid Valve
Valve

Pulmonic Valve
HUMAN HEART IS ROUGHLY TRIANGULAR IN SHAPE. IT IS MADE OF
SPECIAL MUSCLE CALLED ‘CARDIAC MUSCLE’. THE HEART HAS FOUR
COMPARTMENTS CALLED ‘CHAMBERS’ INSIDE IT. THE UPPER TWO
CHAMBERS ARE CALLED ‘AURICLE’ OR ‘ATRIUM’ AND THE LOWER
TWO CHAMBERS ARE CALLED ‘VENTRICLES’. THE TWO ATRIUM
RECEIVE BLOOD FROM THE TWO MAIN VEINS ( VENA CAVA) AND THE
OTHER TWO VENTRICLES TRANSPORT BLOOD TO THE ENTIRE BODY
AND THE LUNGS. THE LEFT ATRIUM IS CONNECTED TO THE LEFT
VENTRICLE BY A VALVE V1 (BICUSPID VALVE). SIMILARLY, THE RIGHT
ATRIUM IS CONNECTED TO THE RIGHT VENTRICLE BY A VALVE V2
(TRICUSPID VALVE). THE FUNCTION OF THESE VALVES IS TO PREVENT
THE BACKFLOW OF BLOOD INTO TWO ATRIUM WHEN THE VENTRICLES
CONTRACT TO PUMP BLOOD OUT OF THE HEART TO THE REST OF THE
BODY. THE JOB OF HEART IS TO PUMP BLOOD AROUND OUR
BODY. ALL THE ATRIUM AND VENTRICLES OF THE HEART CONTRACT
AND RELAX (EXPAND) AT APPROPRIATE TIMES. VENTRICLES HAVE
THICKER WALLS BECAUSE THEY HAVE TO PUMP BLOOD IN THE
BODY WITH A VERY HIGH PRESSURE, THAN ATRIUM. A SHEATH OF
TISSUE CALLED ‘PERICARDIUM’ PROTECTS THE MUSCULAR HEART.
THE CHAMBERS OF HEART ARE SEPERATED BY A PARTITION CALLED
‘SEPTUM’.
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN
HUMAN BEINGS
THE HEART BEAT CIRCULATES THE BLOOD
IN THE HUMAN BODY. THE HEART BEAT IS
DUE TO RHYTHMIC CONTRACTION AND
RELAXATION OF HEART MUSCLE. WHEN THE
MUSCLE OF ALL FOUR CHAMBERS OF
HEART ARE RELAXED, THE PULMONARY
VEIN BRINGS THE OXYGENATED BLOOD
FROM LUNGS INTO THE LEFT ATRIUM OF
HEART. WHEN THE LEFT ATRIUM CONTRACTS
, THE OXYGENATED BLOOD IS PUSHED INTO
THE LEFT VENTRICLE THROUGH THE
BICUSPID VALVE. WHEN THE LEFT VENTRICLE
CONTRACTS, THE OXYGENATED BLOOD IS
FORCED INTO THE MAIN ARTERY CALLED
‘AORTA’. THIS MAIN ARTERY THEN BRANCHES
INTO SMALLER ARTERIES WHICH GO INTO
DIFFERENT BODY ORGANS (EXCEPT LUNGS).
THE SMALLER ARTERIES (CALLED
ARTERIOLES) FURTHER BRANCH INTO
CAPPILARIES. THE MAIN ARTERY (AORTA)
CARRIES BLOOD TO ALL ORGANS OF BODY
LIKE CHEST, CHEST, ARMS, STOMACH,
INTESTINE, LIVER, KIDNEY AND LEGS
(EXCEPT LUNGS). WHEN THE OXYGENATED
BLOOD PASSES THROUGH CAPILLARIES OF
THE BODY ORGANS, THEN IT GIVES OXYGEN
TO THE BODY CELLS. SINCE THE BLOOD
LOSES OXYGEN AND IT BECOMES
DE-OXYGENATED. THE BLOOD ALSO GIVES
THE DIGESTED FOOD AND OTHER DISSOLVED
MAERIALS TO THE BODY CELLS. AT THE SAME
TIME, CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCED AS A
WASTE MATERIAL, DURING RESPIRATION,
ENTERS INTO THE BLOOD. THE DE-
OXYGENATED BLOOD FROM THE BODY
ORGANS ENTERS INTO THE MAIN VEIN
(VENA CAVA). THE MAIN VEIN CARRIES THE
DE-OXYGENATED BLOOD TO THE RIGHT ATRIUM OF THE HEART. WHEN THE RIGHT
ATRIUM CONTRACTS, DE-OXYGENATED BLOOD IS PUSHED INTO THE RIGHT VENTRICLE
THROUGH THE TRICUSPID VALVE. AND WHEN THE RIGHT VENTRICLE CONTRACTS, THE
DE-OXYGENATED BLOOD IS PUMPED INTO LUNGS THROUGH PULMONARY ARTERY. THIS
COMPLETES THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN OUR BODY.
HENCE, HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IS ALSO CALLED
DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

A CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN WHICH THE BLOOD TRAVELS

TWICE THROUGH THE HEART IN ONE COMPLETE CYCLE
OF THE BODY IS CALLED DOUBLE CIRCULATION.

IN HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM THE PATHWAY OF BLOOD

FROM THE HEART TO THE LUNGS AND BACK TO THE
HEART IS CALLED PULMONARY CIRCULATION, AND THE
PATHWAY OF BLOOD FROM THE HEART TO THE REST OF
THE BODY AND BACK TO THE HEART IS CALLED
SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION. THESE TWO TYPES OF
CIRCULATION TAKEN TOGETHER MAKE DOUBLE
CIRCULATION.

HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE IS CALLED HYPERTENSION.

Q. THE MAMMALS ( INCLUDING HUMAN BEINGS) HAVE FOUR-CHAMBERED HEART
i.e. TWO ATRIUM AND TWO VENTRICLE. WHY ?
Ans. IN A FOUR CHAMBERED HEART, THE LEFT SIDE AND RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEART
IS COMPLETELY SEPERATED TO PREVENT THE MIXING OF OXYGENATED BLOOD
WITH THE DE- OXYGENATED BLOOD. SUCH A SEPERATION ALLOWS A HIGHLY
EFFICIENT SUPPLY OF OXYGEN TO THE BODY CELLS WHICH IS NECESSARY FOR
PRODUCING A LOT OF ENERGY. THIS ENERGY IS USEFUL IN WARM-BLOODED
ANIMALS ( LIKE MAMMALS AND BIRDS) WHICH HAVE HIGH ENERGY NEEDS
BECAUSE THEY CONSTANTLY REQUIRE ENERGY TO MAINTAIN THEIR BODY
TEMPERATURE.

Q. WHAT TYPE OF CIRCULATION DOES A FISH HAVE ?

Ans. FISH HAVE SINGLE CIRCULATION BECAUSE FISH HAS TWO-CHAMBERED HEART
(i.e. ONE ATRIUM AND ONE VENTRICLE) AND BLOOD PASSES THROUGH THE
HEART OF FISH ONLY ONCE IN ONE COMPLETE CYCLE.

Q. WHY HEART BEAT BECOME FASTER, WHEN WE DO EXERCISE ?

Ans. THE HEART BEAT BECOME FASTER DURING OR AFTER DOING EXERCISE BECAUSE
THE BODY NEEDS MORE ENERGY UNDER THESE CONDITION. THE FASTER BEATING
OF HEART PUMPS THE BLOOD MORE RAPIDLY TO THE BODY ORGANS WHICH
SUPPLIES MORE OXYGEN TO THE BODY CELLS.
Q. WHAT IS A HEART BEAT ?
Ans. ONE HEART BEAT IS THE ONE COMPLETE CONTRACTION AND RELAXATION OF A
HEART.

Q. WHAT IS PULSE ?
Ans. THE EXPANSION OF AN ARTERY, EACH TIME THE BLOOD IS FORCED INTO IT, IS
CALLED PULSE.

Q. HOW THE PULSE RATE OF A PERSON IS RELATED TO THEIR HEART BEATS ?

Ans. THE PULSE RATE OF A PERSON IS EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF HEART BEATS PER
MINUTES.

Q. WHAT IS BLOOD PRESSURE ?

Ans. THE PRESSURE AT WHICH BLOOD IS PUMPED AROUND THE BODY BY THE HEART
IS CALLED BLOOD PRESSURE.

Q. HOW BLOOD PRESSURE IS MEASURE ?

Ans. BLOOD PRESSURE IS MEASURED BY USING A
INSTRUMENT CALLED SPHYGMOMANOMETER.
Q. HOW BLOOD PRESSURE IS EXPRESSED ?
Ans. THE BLOOD PRESSURE OF A PERSON IS ALWAYS EXPRESSED IN THE FORM OF
TWO VALUES :-
1. SYSTOLIC PRESSURE
2. DIASTOLIC PRESSURE

Q. WHAT IS SYSTOLIC PRESSURE ?

Ans. THE MAXIMUM PRESSURE AT WHICH THE BLOOD LEAVES THE HEART THROUGH
THE MAIN ARTERY (AORTA) DURING CONTRACTION PHASE, IS CALLED SYSTOLIC
PRESSURE.

Q. WHAT IS DIASTOLIC PRESSURE ?

Ans. THE MINIMUM PRESSURE IN THE ARTERIES DURING THE RELAXATION PHASE
OF HEART IS CALLED THE DIASTOLIC PRESSURE.

Q. WHAT ARE THE NORMAL BLOOD PRESSURE VALUE IN HUMAN BEING ?

Ans. SYSTOLIC PRESSURE : 120 mm Hg
DIASTOLIC PRESSURE : 80 mm Hg
THIS USUALLY WRITTEN AS 120/80.
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
A SYSTEM OF TINY TUBES CALLED LYMPH VESSELS AND
LYMPH NODES IN THE HUMAN BODY WHICH TRANSPORTS
THE LIQUID CALLED LYMPH FROM THE BODY TISSUES TO
THE BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IS CALLED LYMPHATIC
SYSTEM.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING
PART :-
1. LYMPH CAPILLARIES
2. LARGER LYMPH VESSELS
3. LYMPH NODES
4. LYMPH

LYMPH CONTAINS A SPECIAL TYPE OF WHITE BLOOD CELL CALLED

LYMPHOCYTES, WHICH HELP IN FIGHTING AGAINST THE INFECTION
AND DIESEASES.
FUNCTION OF LYMPH
1. LYMPH TAKES PART IN THE NUTRITIVE PROCESS OF
THE BODY. LYMPH ALSO CARRIES DIGESTED FAT FOR
THE NUTRITIVE PROCESS.

2. LYMPH PROTECTS THE BODY BY KILLING THE GERMS

DRAINED OUT OF BODY TISSUES WITH THE HELP OF
LYMPHOCYTES CONTAINS IN THE LYMPH NODES, AND
BY MAKING ANTIBODIES.

3. LYMPH HELPS IN REMOVING THE WASTE PRODUCTS

LIKE FRAGMENTS OF DEAD CELLS, etc.
 EXCRETION IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH METABOLIC WASTE
(SUCH AS NITROGENOUS WASTE, URIC ACID) IS REMOVED
FROM THE BODY.

FOR EG :- KIDNEYS ( IN HUMAN BEING) HELP IN PURIFICATION

OF THE BLOOD BY REMOVING THE POISONOUS
SUBSTANCE UREA, OTHER WASTE SALTS
AND EXCESS WATER FROM IT AND
THEM IN THE FORM OF A YELLOWISH
LIQUID CALLED URINE.
 EXCRETION IN PLANTS

THE PLANTS GET RID OF GASEOUS WASTE PRODUCTS

THROUGH STOMATA IN LEAVES AND LENTICLES IN
STEM.
THE PLANTS GET RID OF STORED SOLID AND LIQUID
WASTES BY SHEDDING THE LEAVES, PEELING OF
BARK AND FELLING OF FRUITS.
THE PLANT GET RID OF WASTES BY SECRETING
THEM ,IN THE FORM OF RESIGNS AND GUMS, IN
THE OLD XYLEM.
PLANTS ALSO EXCRETE SOME WASTE SUBSTANCES
INTO SOIL AROUND THEM.
 EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
DIFFERENT ORGANISMS HAVE DIFFERENT ORGANS FOR
EXCRETION :-

1. IN AMOEBA, THE WASTE MATERIALS ARE REMOVED BY

DIFFUSION THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE AND
NITROGENOUS WASTES ARE REMOVED BY
CONTRACTILE VACUOLE.
2. IN EARTHWORM, THE TUBULAR STRUCTURES CALLED
NEPHRIDIA ARE THE EXCRETORY ORGANS. IN
ADDITION TO THE NEPHRIDIA, THE MOIST SKIN OF
EARTHWORM ACTS AS AN EXCRETORY ORGAN.
3. IN HUMAN BEINGS, MICROSCOPIC THIN TUBULES
CALLED NEPHRON FUNCTIONS AS EXCRETORY UNIT.
 EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS

THIS IS HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM WHICH CONSISTS OF KIDNEYS,

RENEL VEIN, RENEL ARTERY, URETER, URINARY BLADDER AND
URETHRA.
EACH KIDNEY IS MADE UP OF A MILLION OF
EXCRETORY UNITS CALLED NEPHRONS.
THE NEPHRON HAS A CUP-SHAPED BAG AT IS UPPER END
CALLED BOWMAN’S CAPSULE AND THE LOWER END OF
THE BOWMAN’S CAPSULE IS CALLED TUBULE. THE ONE
END
OF THE TUBULE IS CONNECTED TO BOWMAN’S CAPSULE
AND ITS OTHER END IS CONNECTED TO URINE
COLLECTING DUCT OF THE KIDNEY. THE BOWMAN’S
CAPSULE CONTAINS A BUNDLE OF BLOOD CAPILLARIES
CALLED GLOMERULUS. GLOMERULUS IS CONNECTED
TO RENEL ARTERY WHICH BRINGS DIRTY BLOOD TO IT.
THE OTHER END OF THE GLOMERULUS IS CONNECTED TO
THE ANOTHER CAPILLARY COMING FROM HENELE’S
LOOP, WHERE IT FINALLY JOINS A RENEL VEIN.
EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS

THE DIRTY BLOOD, FROM RENEL ARTERY, ENTER THE

GLOMERULUS. GLOMERULUS FILTERS THIS BLOOD IN
WHICH SUBSTANCES LIKE GLUCOSE, SALTS, AMINO
ACIDS, WATER AND UREA, ETC ARE ABSORBED BY
BOWMAN’S CAPSULE AND THEN ENTER THE TUBULE
OF NEPHRON. THE USEFUL SUBSTANCES LIKE GLUCOSE,
AMINO ACIDS,
SOME SALTS ARE RE-ABSORBED BY BLOOD CAPILLARIES
IN PROXIMLE CONVOLUTED TUBULE (PCT). THE LIQUID
LEFT BEHIND THE TUBULE IS CALLED URINE.
TO MAKE THE URINE MORE CONCENTRATED, THERE IS
RECOVERY OF WATER AND SALT FROM THE URINE, IN
HENELE’S LOOP, BY THE BLOOD CAPILLARIES. THE
CONCENTRATED URINE THEN PASSES TO DISTILL
CONVOLUTED TUBULE.
DISTILL CONVOLUTED TUBULE MAINTAIN THE pH OF
URINE. THE URINE THEN PASSES TO URINE
COLLECTING DUCT OF KIDNEY FROM WHERE IT IS
CARRIED BY URETER.
FROM HERE, URINE PASSES TO URINARY BLADDER
FOR SOME TIME. URINE ULTIMTELY PASSES OUT
OF THE BODY THROUGH URETHRA.
 BIBLOGRAPHY
PRECRIBED BOOK:-
S.CHAND (BIOLOGY)
SCIENCE NCERT

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