KAMALA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

UTILIZATION OF ELECTRIC ENERGY (EE700OE)
(Open Elective – II)
IV B.Tech. I Sem Civil (R18 Regulation)

By
M.Srikanth
Asst. Prof.
 UNIT-3

Illumination
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
INTRODUCTION
Study of illumination engineering help to understand the principles of light control as
applied to:

•interior lighting design such as domestic and factory lighting.

•outdoor applications such as highway lighting and flood lighting.

Now a day, the electrically produced light is preferred to the other source of
illumination because of an account of its cleanliness, ease of control, steady light
output, low cost, and reliability.

The best illumination is that it produces no strain on the eyes.

 INTERIOR LIGHTING
Domestic Lighting
Sitting room lighting Class room lighting Banking lighting
 INDOOR LIGHTING
Shopping mall lighting Club house lighting Factory Lighting
OUTDOOR LIGHTING

Highway lighting
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NATURE OF LIGHT
Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body and human eye is
capable of receiving it. Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of
human being ultimately depend upon the light.

Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light and the light emitted by
such bodies depends upon their temperature. A hot body about 500–800°C becomes a
red hot and about 2,500–3,000°C the body becomes white hot. While the body is red
hot, the wavelength of the radiated energy will be sufficiently large and the energy
available in the form of heat. Further, the temperature increases, the body changes from
red-hot to white-hot state, the wavelength of the radiated energy becomes smaller and
enters into the range of the wavelength of light. The wavelength of the light waves
varying from 0.0004 to 0.00075 mm, i.e. 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom unit = 10^-10
mm).
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TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION
The following terms are generally used in illumination.

Colour: The sensation of colour is due to the difference in the wave lengths of the light
radiations. The wavelength of visible light lies between 4,000 and 7,500 Å Angstrom.
The color of the radiation corresponding to the wavelength is shown in Fig. 1

Fig.1: Wavelength
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Relative sensitivity: The reacting power of the human eye to the light waves of different
wavelengths varies from person to person, and also varies with age. The average relative
sensitivity is shown in Fig. 2. The eye is most sensitive for a wavelength of 5,500 Å. So
that the relative sensitivity according to this wavelength is taken as unity. Referred from
Fig.1, blue and violet corresponding to the short wavelengths and red to the long
wavelengths, orange, yellow, and green being in the middle of the visible region of
wavelength. The color corresponding to 5,500 Å is not suitable for most of the applications
since yellowish green. The relative sensitivity at any particular wavelength (λ) is known as
relative luminous factor (Kλ)

Fig.2: The average relative sensitivity

 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Light: It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual sensation
upon the human eye. It is expressed in lumen-hours and it analogous to watthours,
which denoted by the symbol ‘Q’.
Luminous flux: It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second
from a luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and measured in lumens.
Radiant efficiency: When an electric current is passed through a conductor, some heat is
produced to I^2R loss, which increases its temperature of the conductor. At low
temperature, conductor radiates energy in the form of heat waves, but at very high
temperatures, radiated energy will be in the form of light as well as heat waves. ‘Radiant
efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy radiated in the form of light, produces
sensation of vision to the total energy radiated out by the luminous body’

1
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Plane angle: A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging
lines (Fig.3). It is denoted by the Greek letter ‘θ’ (theta) and is usually measured in
degrees or radians. One radian is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of a
circle whose length by an arc of a circle whose length is equals to the radius of the
circle.

Fig.3: Plane angle

2
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Solid angle: Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle
enclosed in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting
at the point (Fig. 4). It is usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’ and is measured in
steradian.

The largest solid angle subtended at the

center of a sphere:

Fig.4: Solid angle

4
3
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Relationship between plane angle and solid angle
Let us consider a curved surface of a spherical segment ABC of height ‘h’ and radius of
the sphere ‘r’ as shown in Fig. 5. The surface area of the curved surface of the spherical
segment ABC = 2πrh. From the Fig. 5:

From

The surface area of the segment

Fig.5: Sectional view for solid angle
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION

We know solid angle

From the Equation (5), the curve shows the variation of solid angle with plane angle is
shown in Fig. 6.
UNIT III: ILLUMINATION

Fig.6: Relation between solid angle and plane angle

 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Luminous intensity: Luminous intensity in a given direction is defined as the luminous
flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle. It is denoted by the symbol ‘I’ and is
usually measured in ‘candela’. Let ‘F’ be the luminous flux crossing a spherical segment
of solid angle ‘ω’. Then luminous intensity:

Fig.7: Luminous flux emitting from the source

Then luminous intensity: In lumen or candela

 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Lumen: It is the unit of luminous flux. It is defined as the luminous flux emitted by a
source of one candle power per unit solid angle in all directions.
Lumen = candle power of source × solid angle.
Lumen = CP × ω
Total flux emitted by a source of one candle power is 4π lumens.
Candle power (CP): The CP of a source is defined as the total luminous flux lines emitted
by that source in a unit solid angle.

lumen/steradian or candela
Illumination: Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit
area. It is usually denoted by the symbol ‘E’ and is measured in lux or lumen/m2.

Illumination:
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Brightness: Brightness of any surface is defined as the luminous intensity pen unit surface
area of the projected surface in the given direction. It is usually denoted by symbol
‘L’. If the luminous intensity of source be ‘I’ candela on an area A, then the
projected area is Acos θ.
The unit of brightness is candela/m2 or candela/cm2 or candela/(ft)2.
Brightness,
Relation between I, E and L
Let us consider a uniform diffuse sphere with radius r meters, at the center a source of 1
CP, and luminous intensity I candela.

Illumination (E)
(6)
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Lamp efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the total luminous flux emitting from the
source to its electrical power input in watts. It is expressed in lumen/W.

Space to height ratio: It is defined as ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps
to the height of their Mountings.

Coefficient of utilization or utilization factor: It is defined as the ratio of total number of

lumens reaching the working plane to the Total number of lumens emitting from
source.
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Maintenance factor: It is defined as the ratio of illumination under normal working
conditions to the illumination when everything is clean. Its value is always less than 1,
and it will be around 0.8. This is due to the accumulation of dust, dirt, and smoke on the
lamps that emit less light than that they emit when they are so clean. Frequent
cleaning of lamp will improve the maintenance factor.

Depreciation factor: It is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate

maintained illumination on the working plane. Its values is always more than 1.
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
EXAMPLES
Ex.1: A room with an area of 6 × 9 m is illustrated by ten 80-W lamps. The luminous
efficiency of the lamp is 80 lumens/W and the coefficient of utilization is 0.65.Find the
average illumination.
Solution:
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
EXAMPLES
Ex.2: The flux emitted by 100-W lamp is 1,400 lumens placed in a frosted globe of 40cm
diameter and gives uniform brightness of 250 milli-lumens/m2 in all directions. Calculate
the candle power of the globe and the percentage of light absorbed by the globe.
Solution:
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
EXAMPLES
Ex.3: A surface inclined at an angle 40° to the rays is kept 4 m away from 150 candle
power lamp. Find the average intensity of illumination on the surface.

Solution:
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
Mainly there are two laws of illumination.
•Inverse square law.
•Lambert's cosine law.

(1)Inverse square law

This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of
distance between the surface and a point source’.

Proof:
Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux emitting
from source crossing the three parallel plates having areas A1 A2, and A3 square meters,
which are separated by a distances of d, 2d, and 3d from the point source respectively as
shown in Fig. 8.
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION

Fig.8: Inverse square law

Luminous flux reaching the area A1 = luminous intensity x solid angle.

Illumination ‘E1’ on the surface area ‘A1’ is:

 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Illumination ‘E1’ on the surface area ‘A1’ is:

(7)
Similarly, illumination ‘E2’ on the surface area ‘A2’ is:
(8)

and illumination ‘E3’ on the surface area ‘A3’ is:

(9)

From Equations (7), (8) and (9)

(10)
Hence, from Equation (10), illumination on any surface is inversely proportional to the
square of distance between the surface and the source.
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
(2) Lambert’s cosine law
This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly proportional to the
cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux’.
E∝cosθ⋅⋅⋅(1)
Explanation
Case I – Consider a surface that is normal to the luminous flux as shown in Figure-1.

Then, as per Lambert's cosine law, we get,

Illumination, E=ϕA⋅⋅⋅(2)
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Case II – Consider a surface inclined to the flux in such a way that the normal to the
surface makes an angle (θ) to the flux axis, as shown in Figure-2.

Then, by the Lambert's cosine law, we get,

E=ϕA×cosθ⋅⋅⋅(3)
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Case III – Consider a point 'P' on a plane surface and the distance between the source of
light (S) and the point 'P' is 'r' meters. The source (S) is located at height of 'h' meters from
the surface and its luminous intensity is 'I' candle power as shown in Figure-3.
Then, by the cosine law of illumination, we get, the illumination at point 'P' as,
Ep=(I/r^2)×cosθ
From Figure-3, we have,
cosθ=h/r
⇒r=hcosθ
Therefore, the illumination at point p is
Ep=[I/(h/cosθ)2]×cosθ
∴Ep=(I/h2)×cos^3θ⋅⋅⋅(4)
where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m, h is the height of source
from the surface in m, and I is the luminous intensity in candela. Hence, Equation is also
known as ‘cosine cube’ law. This law states that the ‘illumination at any point on a
surface is dependent on the cube of cosine of the angle between line of flux and normal
at that point’.
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION

Note:
*From the above laws of illumination,
it is to be noted that inverse square law is only applicable for the surfaces if the
surface is normal to the line of flux. And
Lambert's cosine law is applicable for the surfaces if the surface is inclined an
angle ‘θ’ to the line of flux.
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
Example: The illumination at a point on a working plane directly below the lamp is to be
60 lumens/m2. The lamp gives 130 CP uniformly below the horizontal plane. Determine:
(1) The height at which lamp is suspended. (2) The illumination at a point on the
working plane 2.8m away from the vertical axis of the lamp.
Solution:
Given data:
Candle power of the lamp = 130 CP.
The illumination just below the lamp, E = 60 lumen/m2.
(1). From the Figure, the illumination just below the lamp,
i.e., at point A:
UNIT III: ILLUMINATION

(2). The illumination at point ‘B':

SOURCES OF LIGHT
▪ Natural: Sun, moon, and stars etc….
▪ Artificial : electric bulbs, candle and fire etc….
 FLUORESCENT LAMP
▪ A fluorescent lamp, also called fluorescent tube, is a low pressure mercury vapor gas-
discharge lamp that works on the principle of fluorescence to emit visible light.
▪ When an electric current is passed through the fluorescent tube, it excites the mercury vapor
which produces UV rays that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp to glow.
Construction of Fluorescent Lamp
▪ The fluorescent lamp is a low pressure mercury vapor lamp. Thus, due to low pressure, the
lamp is made in the form of a long tube whose inside walls are coated with some phosphor. The
tube is filled with a small amount of mercury vapor and a small amount of argon gas.
▪ At both ends of the tube, the electrodes are attached. The electrodes are of spiral form, made of
tungsten and coated with an electron emitting material.
▪ A choke is also connected in series with the tube filament that provides a voltage impulse for
starting the fluorescent lamp and once the lamp is started, it acts as a ballast.
▪ The lamp filament is connected to a starter switch which is a small cathode glow lamp with
bimetallic strip at the electrodes.
WORKING OF FLUORESCENT LAMP
▪ When the circuit is energized, nearly full supply voltage appears across the starter
terminals due to low resistance of the filaments and a negligible current flows
through the choke. The starter switch is filled with argon gas. This argon gas
ionized and a glow appears inside the starter switch, which heats up the bimetallic
strip carrying a moving contact and short circuits the starter terminals. This results
in a high current to flow through the filaments F1 and F2 and the choke circuit. The
filaments are coated with oxides of barium and strontium, resulting in thermionic
emission which can ionize the argon gas inside the tube.
▪ In the meanwhile, the bimetallic strip of the starter switch cools down and breaks
open the starter circuit. This sudden opening of the starter circuit causes an abrupt
change of current or flux linking the choke coil. As a result, a high voltage surge is
induced in the choke which makes one of the filament at a very high potential with
respect to the other filament. This momentary high potential difference between
the filaments ionizes the mercury and argon present inside the lamp tube and
results in the passes of current between the two electrodes inside the tube.
▪ The excited mercury vapor in the tube produces ultraviolet rays, which are falling
on the phosphor coating results in fluorescence, i.e., visible light is emitted from
the phosphor coating.
ADVANTAGES OF FLUORESCENT LAMP
▪ Fluorescent lamps have high luminous efficiency.
▪ They have long life span.
▪ There running cost is low.
▪ The heat output is also low for a fluorescent lamp.

DISADVANTAGES OF FLUORESCENT LAMP

▪ Fluorescent lamps suffer from stroboscopic effect.
▪ The choke used in fluorescent lamps produces magnetic hum causing disturbance.
▪ For fluorescent lamps, small wattage requiring a large number of fittings.
APPLICATIONS OF FLUORESCENT LAMP
▪ Fluorescent lamps can provide light output in large area, thus these lamps are suitable for
lighting in industrial applications.
▪ Fluorescent lamps are used for lighting in offices as they provide uniform light level.
▪ In residential applications, the fluorescent lamps provide effective lighting for kitchens,
valences, and fascia, etc.
▪ Fluorescent lamps are also used in classroom lighting and retail lighting
COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMP (CFL)

▪ A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) is a type of fluorescent lamp that has been compressed
into the size of an ordinary incandescent lamp. It works on the principle of gas discharge,
i.e., ionization of gas by the electric current.
▪ CFLs are the lamps of choice for those looking for an energy efficient alternative to
incandescent lamps.
▪ CFLs consume very less power than an incandescent lamp.
▪ The increasing variety of shape and color and small size of CFL have made them more
versatile and acceptable than the conventional long tube fluorescent lamps.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF CFL
▪ CFLs are widely used for residential as well as commercial lighting. The following
figure shows the construction of a modern CFL −
▪ A typical CFL consists of a gas filled tube with two electrodes mounted in an end
cap. The tube contains a mixture of argon gas, mercury vapor and liquid mercury at
low pressure. The tube is also coated on the inside with three different phosphors.
▪ When the electric supply is connected to the electrodes, an electric arc is created
between two electrodes. The electric arc produces the flow of electrons. When the
mercury atoms inside the tube are bombarded by these electrons produce
ultraviolet radiation. The phosphor coating inside the tube give off light when
exposed to the UV radiation.
▪ The circuit of the CFL contains a ballast which provides the high initial voltage
required to create the starting arc and then limit the current to prevent the lamp
from self-destruction.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPACT FLUORESCENT
LAMP
▪ CFLs are the energy efficient lamps. The operating cost of CFLs is very less. CFLs save a lot of electricity.
▪ CFLs produce less heat as compared to incandescent bulbs.
▪ The lamp efficiency of the CFL is fairly high, about 50 to 75 lumens per Watt.
▪ CFL lamps do not require the starting gear. CFL lamps start immediately.
▪ CFLs have longer life span.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMP

▪ The initial cost of installing CFL lamps is high.
▪ CFLs are not environment friendly as they have mercury content.
▪ CFLs can fail prematurely if overheated.
▪ CFL lamps cannot be used with timer switches since these can reduce the lifespan of the CFL.
 LED LAMP
▪ An optoelectronic device which emits light based on the principle of electroluminescence is
known as LED (Light Emitting Diode) lamp.
▪ Electroluminescence is the emission of light due to the interaction of an electric field with a
suitable solid.
▪ In case of electroluminescent p-n junctions, when biased in the forward direction, some of
the energy dissipated is converted into light and hence, these are also called as semi-
conductor lamps.
CONSTRUCTION OF LED LAMP
For the construction of LED lamps, following semiconductor materials are used −
▪Gallium Phosphide (Green / Red)
▪Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (Yellow / Red)
▪Gallium Nitride (White)
▪In order to construct an LED lamp, a layer of P-type semiconductor material is placed above the N-type
semiconductor layer. A metal film is used on the P-type layer to provide anode connection to the device.
▪a gold-film is formed on the N-type layer to provide cathode connection. The gold-film also provides reflection of
light from the bottom surface of the device. This increases the efficiency of the LED lamp. The above figure shows
the basic construction of an LED lamp.
WORKING OF LED LAMP
▪ When a DC power supply is applied to an LED lamp in forward bias, the majority
charge carriers start drifting, i.e., electrons towards the positive terminal and
holes towards the negative terminal of the source.
▪ At the PN junction, the recombination of electrons and holes takes place, due
to the recombination of these charge carriers, the energy is released either in
the form of heat or light.
▪ The semiconductor materials such as gallium phosphide (GaP), gallium Arsenide
Phosphide (GaAsP), gallium nitride (GaN), etc. emit light on the recombination
of electrons and holes at the PN junction.
▪ The electrons in these semiconductor materials lose their energy by the
emission of light photons.
ADVANTAGES OF LED LAMPS
▪ The operating cost is very less.
▪ They are compact in size.
▪ LED lamps provide easy control of light.
▪ Remote switching and control can be implemented in the LED lamps.
▪ LED lamps have longer life, up to 100000 hours.
▪ LED lamps are energy efficient and low current consuming.
▪ These lamps are mechanically robust.
▪ LED lamps provide excellent color rendering.
▪ These lamps are environment friendly, as not having any toxic content.
 DISADVANTAGES OF LED LAMPS

▪ The initial cost of the LED lamps is very high.

▪ As LED lamps are semiconductor devices. Thus, they are temperature
sensitive and temperature dependent.
▪ LED lamps require DC supply, therefore, rectification unit is required in the
lamp circuit.
▪ The high intensity light produced by an LED lamp has impact on the insects.
APPLICATIONS OF LED LAMPS

▪ For domestic and commercial lightings.

▪ Used as indicating lamps.
▪ Used as bi-color indicators.
▪ LED lamps are also used as fault indicators in control panels.
▪ In display boards.
▪ Used for decorative lighting.
▪ In mobile phone and wrist watches screens.
▪ Used as head lamps in automobiles.
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT CONTROL

When light strikes the surface of an object, based on the properties of that surface, some
portion of the light is reflected, some portion is transmitted through the medium of the
surface, and the remaining is absorbed. The method of light control is used to change the
direction of light through large angle. There are four light control methods. They are:

1.Reflection
2.Refraction
3.Diffusion
4.Absorption
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
DESIGN OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
The lighting scheme should be such that:
1.It should be able to provide sufficient illumination.
2.It should be able to provide the uniform distribution of light throughout the working
plane.
3.It should be able to produce the light of suitable color.
4.It should be able to avoid glare and hard shadows as much as possible.

While designing a lighting scheme, the following factors should be taken into
consideration.

1.Illumination level.
2.The size of the room.
3.The mounting height and the space of fitting.
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
STREET LIGHTING
Street lighting not only requires for shopping centers but also necessary in order to make
the street more attractive, so that obstructions on the road clearly visible to the drivers of
vehicles. It objectives are:
•To increase the community value of the street.
•To clear the traffic easily in order to promote safety and convenience.

Fig. 10: Specular reflection for street lighting

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FLOODLIGHTING

Floodlighting means flooding of large surface areas with light from powerful projectors.
A special reflector and housing is employed in floodlighting in order to concentrate the
light emitted from the lamp into a relatively narrow beam, which is known as floodlight
projector. This projector consists of a reflecting surface that may be a silvered glass or
chromium plate or stainless steel. The efficiency of silvered glass and polished metal are
85–90% and 70%, respectively. Usually metal reflectors are robust; therefore, they can
be preferred. An important application of illumination engineering is the floodlighting of
large and open areas.
 UNIT III: ILLUMINATION
ASSIGNMENT
1.A light assembly shop, 15 m long, 9 m wide and 3 m up to trusses is to illuminated to a
level of 200 lux. The utilization and maintenance factors are respectively 0.9 and 0.8.
Make a scale drawing of the plan of the shop and set out the required lighting points,
assuming the use of tungsten lamps and dispersive metallic reflectors. You may assume a
lamp efficiency of 13 lumen/W, and spacing height ratio of unity.
2.A room 8 m x 12 m is lighted by 15 lamps to a fairly uniform illumination of 100
lumen/m2. Calculate the utilization coefficient of the room given that the output of each
lamp is 1600 lumens.
3.Find the total saving in electrical load and percentage increase in illumination if instead
of using twelve 150 W tungsten filament lamps, we use twelve 80 W fluorescent tubes. It
may be assumed that (i) there is a choke loss of 25 percent of rated lamp wattage. (ii)
average luminous efficiency throughout life for each lamp is 15 lumen/W and for each
tube 40 lumen/W and (iii) coefficient of utilization remains the same in both cases.