Geographic Information System (GIS)

PPT for Exist Exam

Preparation
General objective/Competency

Understand the principles and applications of GIS for different

sectors.

Apply the different techniques of spatial data capturing,

spatial data analysis, queries, visualization and map making.
 Specific objectives /learning outcomes
 By the end of this course, students will be able to:
Identify the principles and applications of GIS for different sectors.
Identify GIS datasource, data models, dataformats, data
types,and GIS datacapturing
techniques.
Conceptualize map projection and spatial reference system.
Identify feature extraction elements and concepts.
Recognize spatial database and steps of spatial database design.
Apply the different techniques of spatial data analysis, queries, visualization
and map making.
Apply the basic GIS based project design,
management, implementation and evaluation processes.
Apply GIS in land administration and other related application areas.
Perform both spatial and attribute database designs.
Assess different methods of spatial data capturing, data entry and analysis.
Perform feature extraction through digitization.
Apply the different techniques of spatial data analysis, queries, visualization
and map making.
Design and implement GIS based projects.
Accept the use of GIS technology in their career for providing
evidence-based/informed decisions and solving complexities in service
provision
 Learning outcome One
Identify the principles and applications of GIS for different sectors.

Apply GIS in land administration and other related application areas

>>> (Practical session)
 1. Introduction: GIS Concept –
Citizens
 GEOGRAPHIC: world, spatial
real realities
Inventory
 INFORMATION: data and their
meaning
Geographic
 SYSTEM: computer technology
The
 So, GIS is a system for:
World
Knowledge
 capturing,
 storing, Decision Support
 manipulating and displaying of spatially referenced data for effective
decisionin planning and management of
making land use, natural resource,
environment,
urban facilities, transportation and other administrative records.
 Sector Based Definitions of GIS???
Why the term Geographic, Information and System?
• Geographic, because the data collected is associated with some location
in space.

• Information, because attributes or the characteristics (data), about

the space is what we want to learn about.

• System, because there is a link from the information to the geography in

a seamless operation.
 Why GIS?
 Information from many different places/sources can
be stored and analyzed in the same database (data
integration).
 Efficient data security, sharing data and handling
 Enhance the integration of information from many
sources/sectors. >>> establish smooth workflow
with different sectors
 Maintain data consistency
 Capability of data processing and modeling
 Reduce/ Eliminate redundancy of information
 Better, and more accurate answers
customers
quicker, to
 Evidence-based and logical decision making
 Generating new information, idea, thought
Why GIS ? To answer related to …..
• Location: Where something found? What exist at a particular location?
Eg. VGI (Voluntary Geographic Information) using your SMART phone, maps etc

• Condition: Where is it? Where certain conditions exist (at space, surface
or
underground).

• Trends and patterns: What has changed since .......? (at space, surface or underground).

• Modelling: What if ..........?, What will….?

• Logical operations: What is unique at space surface or underground?

• Proximity Analysis: What are the characteristics of the area around existing features?
 In general, a GIS is developed to answer:
• Location: What is at .......? What exist at a particular location?
• Condition: Where is it? Identify locations where certain conditions exist.
• Trends: What has changed since .......?
• Patterns: What spatial patterns exist?
• Modelling: What if ..........?
• Proximity: What are the characteristics of the area around existing features?
• Boundary operations: What exists within a specific region?
• Logical operations: What is unique about a region or set of features?
• Spatial join: Where is something found?
  In general GIS can help to answer spatial and non-spatial questions ……..
 The questions may be information about some area, it might be about
resources (surface or underground), or it might be information about
space>>>> for decision support.
• Questions related to environmental,
economic and social problems such as:
 Land Mgt.
 Land Adm.
 Environmental degradation
 Land use change
 Land use conflict
 Food insecurity  How can someone find possible answers
 Unplanned urban expansion for such questions?
 Informality and land grabbing
 Popn growth/dynamicity and etc  >>> Needs to Think Spatially.
Components (Elements) of GIS

People

Data

Software Network

Procedure

Hardware
 Applications of
GIS
In land In natural In Industry and In In Military
administratio resource Urban Environmen
ns management Planning tal
Protections
 Land registration  Watershed Residential  Hazard analysis  Training
 Cadastre management and and mapping  Command and
 Land use  Forest commercial Erosion control
planning resource land suitability risk  Intellige
 Valuation monitoring analysis analysis nce
 Asset Inventories  Land cover  Transportati  Drought gatherin
 Digitalization change analysis on analysis analysis g
of Land  Land use  Engineering Landsli
Sector /s planning Utilities and de
 Mineral and analysis In Business
other resource communicati Healthcar  Banking
exploration and ons e analysis and
utilization Project planning  Crime insurance
 Agricultural land and analysis analysis  Retails and
suitability Locating underground  EIA market
analysis pipes and cables, manageme
 Mining Balancing loads nt
 Protected in electrical  Deliver
area networks, y of
manageme Planning goods
nt facility and
maintenance, service
 Tracking s
energy use
 Learning outcome Two

Identify GIS data source, data models, data formats, data types, and
GIS data capturing techniques.
Source and Types of Data In general:
Source of Data • Maps,
• Any data fall in to primary or secondary. • Aerial photographs,
• Satellite images and
• Primary data are data collected
through first hand observation, like • Field data (ground survey) are the
major sources of spatial data.
ground survey.

• Secondary data are data collected

from other individuals or organizations
work.
 examples of secondary data:
 Topographic map,
 Meteorological data and
Population census
Data sources – Remote Sensing

• Where are:
- the parcel
- the road
- the settlement
• When is:
- Informal settlement occurred
- Land invasion happened
• How much:
- Area of land is occupied by urbanization
• How are:
- informal settlement is expanded
Data sources – Ground Survey
 Types of Data
There are two types of data in GIS.
i. Spatial Data
• Itis a geographic data that contains positional values to
indicate particular locations.
• Soil, Land use, Slope, Road, Drainage, etc are examples of spatial data.

ii. Non-spatial Data

• Itis an attribute data used to describe spatial data/information in
the form of tables, figures or descriptive terms.
• Example, physical and chemical properties of soil, types of
slope, description of road, etc.
GIS Data Models

• How do we represent the world/spatial data in a GIS database?

• Data in a GIS represents in simplified view of physical entities or

phenomena called MODEL

• Adata model: is a set of constructs for describing and

representing selected aspects of the real world in a computer.

• The purpose of spatial data model is to provide a formal means

of representing and manipulating spatially referenced information.
 Concepts on geographic Entity
• Geographic entity is also known to as geographic phenomena >>> it
indicates positional value in space.

• A geographic object corresponds to an entity of the real world.

Types of Geographic Entity

• The fundamental observation is that same phenomena
manifestations themselves essentially everywhere while others only occur in certain
locations.
• Therefore, geographic entities based on the manifestation within the area
of consideration, can be broadly classified in to two types.
1. Field entity
2. Object entity
1. Field entity
• Are geographic phenomena in which the values of the phenomena can be
determined in every everywhere or in any point of interest.

• They manifest themselves everywhere.

• Example: Temp, Pressure, elevation, etc

• These fields are actually continuous in nature and are characterized by

their fuzzy boundary nature.
2. Object Entity
• Object Entities are also a geographic entities/phenomena which do not
manifest themselves everywhere in the study area.

• Such kind of entities have discrete boundary.

• The space between them is potentially empty.

• Example: buildings, roads, parcels etc

Entity
• An entity is "a phenomenon of interest in reality that is not further subdivided
into phenomena of the same kind"

 e.g. a city could be considered an entity and subdivided into component

parts but these parts would not be called cities, they would be districts,
neighborhoods or the like

 e.g. a forest could be subdivided into smaller forests

Spatial Object:
• An object is "a digital representation of all or part of an entity"

• The method of digital representation of a phenomenon varies according to scale,

purpose and other factors.

 e.g. a city could be represented as a point if the area under consideration

were continental in scale the same city could be geographically represented as
an area if we are dealing with a geographic database for a state or a county.

Object Class: an object class is the set of objects which represent the set
of entities.
 e.g. the set of points representing the set of wells
Types of GIS Data model
 Two types of spatial data models:

1. Vector Data model

2. Raster data model

1. Vector Data model – uses discreteelements such as

points, lines and polygons to represent the geometry of real
world entities.
Characteristics of Vector Data Models
• A vector data model uses sets of coordinates and associated attribute data
to define discrete objects.

• There are three basic types of vector objects:

i. Points
Ii. Lines
Iii. Polygons
Area

Lines
i. Pont Representations
• A point uses a single coordinate pair to represent the location of an entity.

• Have no dimension.

• Some features may have real physical dimension, but for the purpose of GIS users
they may be represented as points.

• Attribute data are attached to each point

• It represents geographic features such as wells, sample locations, or trees.

 ii. Linear Representations
• Linear Features – often referred to as arcs, are represented as lines.

• Lines typically have a starting, ending and intermediate points to represent

the shape of the linear entity.

• Starting points and end points sometimes referred to as nodes.

• Intermediate points in a line are referred to as vertices.

iii. Polygon Representations
• Area entities: are most often represented by closed polygon.

• These polygons are formed by a set of connected lines.

• a set of lines connected starting to ending point.

• Polygons have an interior region and may entirely enclose other polygons
in this region.
Advantages and Limitations of Vector Models

Advantages
 Precise location of features
Disadvantages
 Storing many attributes
 Complex data structures
 Flexible for cartography  Simulation may be difficult
 Compact storage of information Some spatial analysis is difficult
Ideally suited for certain types of analysis, or impossible to perform
especially areas, lengths, Connections  Not compatible with remote
 Good representation of reality sensing data
 Compact data structure
 Topology can be described in a network
 Accurate graphics
Topological vector models
• Topology: is the study of geometric properties that do not change when the
forms are bent, stretched or undergo similar transformations.

• Topological vector models: explicitly record topological relationships such

as adjacency and connectivity in the data files.

• Topological vector models may also enforce particular types of

topological relationships.

• Itenhance many vector data operations.

• No overlaps or gaps among lines or polygons in the same layer

Raster data model
• Raster data model – identifies and represents grid cells for
a given region of interest.
• Raster cells are arrayed in a row and column pattern to
provide “Wall to Wall” coverage of a region.
• Raster model is used most commonly with variables that
change continuously across a region.

• Suitable to represent “continuous” spatial features or phenomena.

• E.g. Elevation, mean temperature, slope, average rainfall, cumulative ozone exposure, or soil
moisture, population concentration.
 • Raster data models define the world as a regular set of cells in a
grid pattern with associated attributes.

• Typically square & evenly spaced in X & Y direction

 Array of rectangular cells.

Geographic variation is expressed by
assigning values or attributes to cells or
pixels (picture elements).

Raster cells represent a two

dimensional matrix organized in rows
and columns:
Raster – Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages
 Simple data structure
 Easy overlay
 Various kinds of spatial analysis
 Uniform size and shape
 Cheaper technology
• Disadvantages
 Large amount of data
 Projection transformation is difficult
 Different scales between layers can be difficult
 May lose information due to generalization
A comparison of Raster and vector data
models
Characteristics Raster Vector
 Data structure  usually simple  usually complex
 Storage requirements  large for most data sets  small for most data sets

 Coordinates conversion  may be slow depending on size  simple

of data sets
 Analysis  easy for continuous data, simple for  preferred for network analyses,
many layer combinations complex for other spatial operations

 Positional precision  floor set by pixel size
 Accessibility  easy to modify or program due
to simple data structure
 Display and output  good for images not for
discrete features
 limited only by quality of positional
measurements
 often complex
 map like, poor for images
 Basic data structures for
GIS
Vector

Raster

TIN (triangulated irregular

network)

Tabular information
(attribute table)
 Learning outcome Three
Conceptualize map projection and spatial reference system.

Apply the different techniques of spatial data analysis,

queries, visualization and map making. >>> (Practical session)
 Coordinate Systems and MAP PROJECTIONS

What is Coordinate System?

Coordinate System is a means for identifying a point on the earth feature

on a spherical or planimetric map.

 Type of CS
1.Geographic coordinate/spherical grid System >>> Latitude (PARALLELS circle
the globe from east to west) and Longitude (MERIDIANS are drawn from
pole to pole).

2.Projected coordinate System >>> cartesian/rectangular or plane coordinates

Map Projections
• Map Projection - the transformation of a curved earth to a flat map
(3D to 2D)
• Parallels and meridians used as a base on which to draw a
map on a flat surface
 Earth to Globe to Map
To prepare a map, the earth is first reduced to a globe and then projected onto a flat surface

=
Types of Map Projection

• There are different types of map projection systems which

are appropriate for different areas and applications.
 1. Planar or polar projection
• Surface of globe is projected onto a plane tangent at only one point
• Used frequently at N or S pole
• Usually only one hemisphere shown (centered on N or S pole)
• For example: Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area
2. Conic projection
• Analogous to wrapping a sheet of paper around the earth in a cone
• Normally shows just one semihemisphere in middle latitudes.
• Very popular for maps of East-West oriented land masses
• Example: Lambert Conformal Conic
 Properties

Use
 Properties

Use
 Properties

Use
 3. Cylindrical projection
• low distortion at equator, higher distortion approaching poles
• a good choice for use in equatorial and tropical regions,
• e.g., Ecuador, Kenya, Ethiopia, Malaysia
• For example: Mercator projection
 Properties

Use
UTM (Universal Transform Mercator)

• Perhaps the most prevalent plane grid system used in GIS

operations is the UTM.

• UTM allows precise measurement using the metric system of

measurement and has been adopted for remote sensing work,
topographic map preparation and natural resource database
development.

• The first zone starts at 180 degrees west to 174 degree west, and
60 zones cover the globe/world.
UTM (Universal Transform Mercator)

Works great for large scale data sets and satellite

image rectification though some areas cross zones
 Distortions Caused by Map Projections

 All projection types have distortions in:

• Shape
• Area
• Distance
• Direction
• Angle

Shape of the Earth

Choice of Map Projection

• What to do for accurate mapping?

• A particular projection is defined by a datum, a projection type and a set

of projection parameters

• Different spheroids are used in different regions, each chosen to fit the
observed datum of each region

• The actual shape of the earth can now be determined quite accurately by
observing satellite orbits
Projections type which Preserve Some Earth Properties
• Area - correct earth surface area (Albers Equal Area) important for
mass balances
• Shape - local angles are shown correctly (Lambert Conformal
Conic)
• Direction - all directions are shown correctly relative to the center
(Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area)
• Distance - preserved along particular lines
• Some projections preserve two properties
Learning outcome Four
Assess different methods of spatial data capturing,
data entry and analysis.

Apply the different techniques of spatial data

capturing, spatial data analysis, queries, visualization and map
making. >>> (Practical session)

Identify feature extraction elements and concepts.

 GIS Data Capturing and Entry Techniques
 Primary Vector data capturing techniques
Surveying- Ground surveying using Theodolites and other
ground based instruments
• Ground survey is time-consuming and expensive activity, but it is still the best
way to obtain highly accurate point locations.

• Typically used for capturing buildings, land and property boundaries,

 LiDAR -Relatively new technology that employs a scanning laser rangefinder to

produce accurate topographic surveys

 Primary raster data capturing techniques – eg. Remote sensing, Aerial

Photographs
  Secondary raster data collection/capture >>> using scanners
 Documents are scanned to reduce wear and tear, improve access,
provide integrated database storage, and to index them geographically
 Maps, aerial photographs, and images are scanned and georeferenced so that it
provide geographic context for other data
 Maps, aerial photographs and images are scanned prior to vectorization.

 Secondary vector data capture >>> involves digitizing vector objects from maps and
other geographic data sources.

 Heads-up digitizing and vectorization

 Vectorization is the process of converting raster data into vector data.

  COGO data entry
• COGO is a contraction of the term coordinate
geometry, a methodology for capturing and representing
geographic data.

• COGO uses survey-style bearings and distances to define each

part of an object

• COGO data are very precise measurements and are often regarded as
the only legally acceptable definition of land parcels.

 Obtaining data from external sources and converting in to GIS data formats.
In sum: Two types of data are entered into a GIS system, and this stage is very important
and time consuming task for GIS users.

 There are at least four major types of spatial data entry

into a GIS subsystem.
These are:
1. Manual digitizing >>> using digitizer
2. Automatic scanning >>> using scanner
3. Entry of coordinates >>> using coordinate geometry
and
4. Conversion of existing digital data >>> (eg. CAD to GIS
data)

 The choice of data input method is governed largely by:

 the application,
 the available budget,
 type of data and
 the complexity of data being input
 Digitization
 The user traces the spatial features with a hand-held magnetic pen,
often called a mouse or cursor.
  Digitizing can be done;
 In
a
point
mode,
where
single
points
are recorded one at a time

 In a stream mode, where a point is

collected on regular intervals of time or
distance, measured by X and Y movement.
 In general, scanners work best when the information on a map is kept

• very clean,
• very simple, and
• Unclustered with graphic symbology.
 Learning outcome Five
Recognize spatial database and steps of spatial database
design.

Perform both spatial and attribute database

designs.>>> (Practical session)
 Spatial Database, Why Spatial Database?
• The real world is too complex for our immediate and direct understanding.

 Models of the reality are very important for understanding the world/real feature.

 Databases are created from these "models" as a fundamental step in coming to

know the nature and status of that reality.

So, how do you differentiate database and spatial database?

 A database can be thought of as an integrated set of data on a particular subject.
Spatial database is simply a databases containing geographic data for
a particular area and subject.
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  The DBMS approach to storing geographic data offers a number of advantages and disadvantages
over traditional file based datasets

Advantages of DBMS: Disadvantages

 Eliminate/reduces redundancy.
 The cost of acquiring DBMS
Maintenance costs decrease
software can be quite high.
 Multiple applications
 Data sharing b/n managers and users /  A DBMS adds complexity to
customers. the problem of managing data,
Security and standards especially in small projects.
Managing large amounts of data
Manipulating the database
Querying the database to retrieve specific data.
Updating the database (changing values).
Control 6
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Terminology in spatial databases
 The main terms are: geographic object, theme and map.

1. Geographic Objects:
 The major objects to be considered at a conceptual level
are
geographic objects.

A geographic object corresponds to an entity of the real world and has

two components.

 i. Description - a set of descriptive attributes.

 ii. Spatial component- which may embody both geometry (location in the
underlying geographic space, shape, and so on) and topology (spatial
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relationships existing among objects, such as adjacency and connectivity).
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 2. Theme
 A theme is a collection of geographic objects. :
 In a GIS, the geospatial information corresponding to a particular topic
is gathered in a theme.
 Rivers, cities, and countries are examples of themes

 A theme is hence a set of homogeneous geographic objects (i.e.,

objects having the same structure or type).

3.Maps
When a theme is displayed on paper or on-screen, what the user sees is a map as it is
commonly displayed, with colors, a particular scale, a legend, and so on.
Topographic maps, railway maps, and weather maps are examples of maps
commonly used.

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 Element/Components of Spatial Database
Elements of reality modeled in a GIS database have two identities:
1. The element in reality - entity
2. The element as it is represented in the database - object

 A third identity that is important in cartographic applications is the symbol--- that is used
to
illustrate the object/entity as a feature on a map or other graphic display.

1. Entity
An entity is "a phenomenon of interest in reality that is not further subdivided into
phenomena of the same kind"
 e.g. a city could be considered an entity and subdivided into component parts
but these parts would not be called cities, they would be districts, neighborhoods
or the like
e.g. a forest could be subdivided into smaller forests
 2. Spatial
Object:
An object is "a digital representation of all or part of an entity"

• The method of digital representation of a phenomenon varies according to scale,

purpose and other factors.

 Object Class: an object class is the set of objects which represent the set
of
entities.
 e.g. the set of points representing the set of wells

Attribute: an attribute is a characteristic of an entity selected

for representation - usually non-spatial data.
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 Characteristics of Spatial database

A spatial database is characterized by the following:

Contemporaneous - should contain information of the same season for all its measured

variables
 As detailed as necessary for the intended applications
 Positionally accurate
 Exactly compatible with other information that may be overlain with it
 Internally accurate, describe the nature of phenomena without error
 Readily updated on a regular schedule
 Accessible to whoever needs it
 Spatial Data Integrity
 Spatial Data Indexing and Access Method
 Long Transaction Management
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 Types of DBMS
DBMS can be classified according to the way they store and manipulate data.

Three main types of DBMS are available to GIS users today:

1. Relational (RDBMS),
2. Object (ODBMS), and
3. Object-relational
(ORDBMS).

1. A relational database comprises a set of tables, each a two-dimensional list (or array) of
records containing attributes about the objects under study.
2. Object database management systems (ODBMS) were initially designed to address
several of the weaknesses of RDBMS. These include the inability to store complete objects
directly in the database.
3. object-relational DBMS (ORDBMS)....This is largely because of the massive installed base
of RDBMS and the fact that RDBMS vendors have now added many of the important ODBMS
capabilities to their standard RDBMS software systems to create hybrid object-relational
DBMS (ORDBMS).
 Spatial Database Design
Identifying the phenomena and then choosing an appropriate data representation
for them is part of a process called database design

The overall goal or target of database design is to

maintain: However, database design is
 data consistency/integrity,
highly influenced by:
 reduces data redundancy,  Applications,
 increase system performance,  Data format and size,
 maintain maximum user flexibility, and  Data maintenance and update,
 create a useable system  Hardware/software,
 Number and sophistication of users,
 Schedule and budget of the project,
 Management approach and e7t0c
 Steps in Spatial Database Design
Spatial Database design is an evolutionary process.

 It involves three major steps conceptual, logical, and physical models which organized in the six practical
steps.
 1. Conceptual
Model
i. Model the user’s view-This involves tasks such as identifying
organizational functions.
(e.g., establish legal cadastre, finding vacant and determining
the data required to support these functions, and organizing the data
into groups to facilitate data management

ii. Define objects and their relationships-The object types

(classes) and functions can be specified.

iii. Select geographic representation-Choosing the types of

geographic representation (discrete object – point, line, and polygon
– or field)

NB. without considering any computer hardware and software

requirements.
 2. Logical Model
 A database schema that includes software considerations in its description of a data structure is called a
logical schema

iv. Match to geographic database types. This involves matching the object types to be
studied to specific data types supported by the GIS that will be used to create and
maintain the database.

V. Organize geographic database structure. This

includes tasks such as defining topological associations,
specifying rules and relationships, and assigning
coordinate systems

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 3. Physical Model

 Define database schema. The final stage is definition of the actual physical
database schema that will hold the database data values

detailed specifications of the data structure of a database are collectively called the physical schema.
The process of translating or mapping a logical schema to a physical

 The process of translating or mapping a logical schema to a physical schema is commonly referred to as physical
data modelling or physical database design.

 Physical modelling is a more complex and technical process than logical modelling because it requires competency
in using both the DBMS and the hardware system

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 Learning outcome Six

Apply the different techniques of spatial data analysis,

queries, visualization and map making. >>> (Practical session)
Spatial Data Analysis/Analysis of Geographic data

What is spatial data analysis?

 The process of modeling, examining and interpreting model
results.

Why spatial data analysis?

 Spatial analysis for:
 understanding spatial problems
 evaluating suitability and capability
 estimating and predicting
 interpreting and understanding
 assessing evidences in favor of various spatial hypotheses
 supporting decision-making and so on
 Analytical GIS
Query Function Functions

• Querying is the capability to retrieve data, usually a data subset, based

on some user defined formula.
• Perhaps the primary function in the data storage and retrieval subsystem
involves the editing and updating of data.
• Frequently, the following data editing capabilities are required :
1. interactive editing of spatial data;
2. interactive editing of attribute data;
3. the ability to add, manipulate, modify, and delete both spatial features and
attributes (independently or simultaneously) ; and the
4. ability to edit selected features in a batch processing mode.
 Overlay
Functions
• Overlay is a tool and methods used to bring together two or
more datasets in a single defined system.
Some of vector overlay methods (Boolean logic)
Neighborhood
Functions
• Neighbourhood operations evaluate the characteristics of an area surrounding a
specific location.

• The analysis of topographic features, e.g. the relief of the landscape, is normally
categorized as being a neighbourhood operation. This involves a variety of point
interpolation techniques.

• Interpolation is defined as the method of predicting unknown values using

known values of neighbouring locations.
 Interpolation
• Spatial Interpolation >>> creating a continuous (or prediction of unknown value) surface
from sampled point values.
• Interpolation is defined as the method of predicting unknown values using known
values
of neighbouring locations.

 Interpolation >>> Prediction of values

between measured points.

 Extrapolation >>>Prediction of values

outside of measured points.
 Cont…
When to use what interpolation techniques?
1. Spline interpolation technique –
• >>> for smooth surface/ for nearly similar values among measured points or for
smooth surface.
• >>>> when the surface (values) varies slowly from region to region over the area of
interest.

2. IDW interpolation technique -

• >>> estimates the values of unknown locations using the distance to proximal known
values.
• >>> the farther the proximal point, the less weight it carries in defining the target
point’s value.
• >>> the assumption is that things that are close to one another are more alike than
those that are farther apart.
• The closer a point is to the center of the cell being estimated, the more influence, or
weight, it has in the averaging process.
Cont…
3. Trend surface interpolation technique -
• >>> the most complex method as it fits a multivariate statistical regression
model to the known points, assigning a value to each unknown location
based on that model.
• >>> Fits for smooth surface

4. Kriging interpolation technique -

• It is a complex geostatistical technique, similar to IDW, that employs
semivariograms to interpolate the values of an input point layer.
• Semivariogram depicting the spatial autocorrelation of
>>>> measured sample the
• >>> forpoints.
geostaistical analysis and more akin to a regression
analysis.
 Cont…
5. Natural neighbour interpolation technique -
• >>> finds the closest subset of input samples to a query point and applies
weights to them based on proportionate areas to interpolate a value.

6. Topo to Raster interpolation technique-

• >>> specifically designed to create a surface that more closely represents a
natural drainage surface and better preserves both ridgelines and stream
networks from input contour data.
Connectivity
Analysis
• The distinguishing feature of connectivity operations is that it
use functions that accumulate values over an area being traversed.
• Most often these include the analysis of surfaces and networks.
• Connectivity functions include proximity analysis, network
analysis, spread functions.
• Proximity analysis techniques are primarily concerned with
the proximity of one feature to another.
• Buffer- Buffering involves the ability to create distance buffers
around selected features, be it points, lines, or areas.
>>> corridor or zone generation
• Network analysis >>> This is often referred to as route optimization.
Cartography and Map Making
• What is Map?
• What is Cartography?

Map is diminished/reduced, simplified/selective, symbolized representation of

an area on a flat paper (2D) or a similar material as if that area is viewed
from above using scale.

 Map is reduced representation:- map is smaller than the area it represents.

Scale is the dimensional representation between a map and the reality it

represents.

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• Map is selective:- every detail an area is not represented on a map. The map
maker put only selected things from an area and put on a map.

• Map is symbolized representation:- A feature on the surface of the earth is

represented by a symbol on a map.

• A map provides orthogonal view:- All maps except contour maps show two
dimensions of objects as if they are looked from above.

• Maps are a universal medium for communication, easily understood and appreciated
by most people, regardless of language or culture.

 Are maps realistic representations of the actual world? No--never!

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Use and Properties of Maps
Uses of maps
• Maps have multi-purpose by its nature. So that maps are powerful tools for
spatial analysis such as:
 Increase the range of vision( enables us to speak beyond our range).
 Can provide the locations of places
Helps to know the details of landforms and other features(physical, biotic,
cultural and social characteristics of an area)
 Used as a base for any planning
Can serve as source of information to study about the past, present an for the
future
 Base for military intelligence
 Base for navigation and explorations
 Helps for research purpose ( Decisions support)

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Properties/characteristics of Maps
• Can express in terms of all map projection properties (shape, distance,
direction, size and area)

Generally: basic map properties are:-

 All maps are graphical/symbolic representations

 All maps are scaled representations of realty
 All maps should strive/attempt for accuracy
 No maps are perfect in shape, size, direction, distance and area
 Maps are grow old---Not indicate updated spatio-temporal changes
 Maps are biased--- it is subjected to generalization.
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Map Scale
Map scale is the ratio of linear distance on the map to corresponding distance
on the ground.
i.e Map scale= MD/GD

It shows dimensional r/ship between distance on the map and distance on the
ground.

 Can determine how much details can be shown on a map

 Type and amount of scale is determined by the size of the paper and the area
to be covered.

 The larger the scale is the detail the information can be put and vice versa.

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How to find Scale of the
map?Method
1.Direct
Example: An approximate East-west
Remember
and North-South extensions of Ethiopia E-W=33oE-48oE
Degree difference =15o
is 1600 and 1300 km respectively. 1o= 111km
So E-W extensions Eth is
Then find the scale of the map of
=1665km
on 25cm by 20 cm paper. N-S= 3oN-15oN
Degree difference=12o
N-S extension= 1332km
Steps
-

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 2. Indirect Method
1. What is the scale of the map if ground distance from point A to B is
2.5km.
B

Example 2. Find the scale of the following map.

100 55’

10050’
360 360 5’
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Areal Scale
• It refers to the ratio of area on the map to the corresponding area on the
surface of the earth.
• It is the square of linear scale
• Example. 1cm to 5km linear scale is = 1cm2 to 25km2
• Linear scale is the square root of areal scale
• Example. 1cm2 to 900km2 areal scale is = 1cm to 30km

Methods / ways of scale representation

 Scale conversion

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 Element/ Components of Maps
• Different types of maps (general or specific purpose) may have different
types of map components, but all of them may have three basic map
components.
1. All maps use graphical symbols to give positional information.
2. All maps have key to explain the symbols that are used
3. All maps include auxiliary information such as date, projection etc
• Title
• Legend • Projection type
• Scale • Datum
• Direction • Map number
• Grid • Authority and others
• Date of Publications
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Types of Maps
1. Types of maps based on scale
I. Large scale maps
• These maps show grater details of information in small
area.
• The scale of these maps is greater than or equal to 1:50,000
II. Medium scale maps
• Gives
are maps
less its
detailscale is ranging
information from
than 1:50,000-1:250,000
large scale map but gives detail information
when it compared with small scale map.
III. Small scale maps
• Represent large area of earth’s surface
• Gives only general information (less detail information)
• The scale of these maps is less or equal to 1:250,000
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 2. Based on Functions/purpose
• There are two broad categories based on purpose
I. General Purpose Map-it is small scale map
Indicate the locations of natural and human made features
Examples of general purpose map
 Wall maps, Topographic Maps, Atlas maps, Political
maps, Physical maps

II. Specific Purpose Map=thematic/topical map

 Cadastral maps---used to show individual landownership's
 Plan maps---used to show individual building, road etc

3 Based on Subject matter >>> eg. Climate Map

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 Learning outcome Eight
Apply the basic GIS based project design, management,
implementation and evaluation processes.

 Design and implement GIS based projects.

Planning, Design, Implementing and Managing
GIS based project
• Knowledge and skills of geo-information is very
important to develop and implement GIS-based
project.

• Good project design and management are essential to

produce a useful and effective GIS application.

• Any design and management approach should be

adapted to meet the needs of the application, the
available technology, the users of the system and the
organizational culture in which the GIS must reside.
Steps to Develop Sustainable GIS-based Project
 Steps to Develop sustainable GIS project

1. Problem Identification
• Before developing a GIS application the problem that the GIS will address must be
identified.

• There are two techniques that can be used to assist problem identification:
• Creating a rich picture (a schematic view of the problem being addressed), or

i. Developing a root definition (a statement of an individual’s or group’s

perspective on the problem).
Cont
….
• The rich picture: A rich picture is a schematic view of the problem
a project will address.

• It presents the main components of the problem, as well as

any interactions that exist.

• The root definition: The root definition is a view of a problem from a

specific perspective.

• Different users may have different views of a problem.

2. Stating aim and
Objectives
Defining the general and specific objective based on the problems
identified.

Defining the general and specific objective based on the need

and organizational functions/purposes.
 3. Developing
•Model
The rich picture and root definitions that define a problem must be turned into a
GIS data model.
• Here the term data model is used as a collective term for the process of
identifying all the design elements used in the construction of a GIS project
(Peuquet, 1984 and Frank and Mark, 1991).

• Worboys (1995) offers a useful solution to this confusion by

distinguishing between conceptual and physical data models.

• The conceptual data model is a high-level view that is independent of

the computer system. This is the user’s view of a problem and its elements.

• The physical data model, on the other hand, describes the organization of data in
the computer.
Cont…
..• Therefore, from the project design and management perspective, it
is useful to think of the GIS data model as consisting of two parts:

• The conceptual data model adds spatial detail to the rich picture
by including elements of spatial form and spatial processes.

• The physical data model is concerned with how to represent

the conceptual model within the computer.
4. Data Capturing/Collection

• Both primary and secondary data

• Techniques data capturing (refer learning outcome Four)

5. Perform
analysis • For example:
• Selection
• Extraction
• Interpolation
• Overlay
• Proximity (Buffer)
• Recode
• Network
• Modelling
6. Evaluate results
• Three tests that can be used to check whether a GIS application meets
the goals set for it at the start of the design process.

• First, all the parties involved in the design and development of the GIS
can be asked if they are using the application for the purpose for which it
was designed or not.
• Second, the GIS can be checking the result against reality.

• Third, evaluating the adaptations and changes due to the implementation

of the project.