SCIE6057 –Chemistry & Biology

Week 1

Introduction: Understanding human consciousness:

A physiological approach and Structure and function
of cells of the nervous system
INTRODUCTION: UNDERSTANDING
HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS:
A PHYSIOLOGICAL APPROACH
 Introduction of Human Brain

• Introduction: Understanding human consciousness:

A physiological approach
-. The phenomenon of consciousness:
> Blindsight
> Split brains
> Unilateral neglect
 Human Brain

• The human brain is a wrinkled, walnut-shaped hunk of tissue

weighing about 1.3 kilograms.
• The human brain is an amazingly intricate network of neurons
(cells that receive and transmit electrochemical signals). There are
100 billion neurons in complex array, the estimated 100 trillion
connections among them, and the almost infinite number of
paths that neural signals can follow through this morass

• The largest part of the brain consists of two symmetrical

parts, called the cerebral hemispheres, which receives
sensory information from the opposite sides.
• The corpus callosum permits the two hemisphere to
share information so that each side knows what the other
side is perceiving and doing.
 Human Consciousness

• The term consciousness can be used to refer to a variety of

concepts, including simple wakefulness. Thus, a researcher
may write about an experiment using “conscious rats”,
referring to the fact that the rats were awake and not
anesthetized. However, the word consciousness to refer to the
fact that humans are aware of−and can tell others about−our
thoughts, perceptions, memories, and feelings.
• We know that consciousness can be altered by changes in the
structure or chemistry of the brain; therefore we may hypothesize
that consciousness is a physiological function, just like behavior.

• Verbal communication makes cooperation possible and permits us

to establish customs and law of behavior. perhaps the evolution of
this ability is what has given rise to the phenomenon of
consciousness.
 The Phenomenon Of Consciousness

• Blindsight is the ability of a person who cannot see objects in

his or her blind field to accurately reach for them while
remaining unconscious of perceiving them; caused by damage
to the “mammalian” visual system of the brain.
 The Phenomenon Of Consciousness

• Split brains
− Studies of humans who have undergone a particular
surgical procedure demonstrate dramatically how
disconnecting parts of the brain involved with
perceptions from parts that are involved with verbal
behavior also disconnects them from consciousness.
This results suggest that the parts of the brain involved
in verbal behavior may be the ones responsible for
consciousness.
The split brain operation. A “window” has been opened in the side of the brain, the corpus
callosum being cut at the midline of the brain
-. The effects of cutting the corpus callosum (the split-brain
operation) reinforce the conclusion that we become conscious of
something only if information about it is able to reach the part of
the brain responsible for verbal communication, which are located
in the left hemisphere. If the information does not reach these parts
of brain, then that information does not reach consciousness.
Identification of an object in response to an olfactory stimulus by a person with a split brain
• Unilateral Neglect
− Unilateral (one-sided) neglect is a syndrome in which people
ignore objects located toward their left and the left sides of
objects located anywhere; most often caused by damage to the
right parietal lobe.

− The parietal lobe receives information directly from the skin,

the muscles, the joints, the internal organs, and the part of the
inner ear that is concerned position. But that is not all, the
parietal cortex receives auditory and visual information as well.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS OF
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 1
• Information, in the form of light, sound waves, odors, tastes, or
contact with objects, is gathered from the environment by specialized
cells called sensory neurons. Movement are accomplished by the
contraction of muscles, which are controlled by motor neurons.

• In between sensory neurons and motor neurons come the

interneurons ─ neuron that lie entirely within the central nervous
system.
Three types of neurons. The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous
system (CNS) of vertebrates, and sensory and motor neurons form the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). Sensory neurons of the peripheral nervous system carry
information about the environment to the CNS. Interneurons in the CNS provide
links between sensory and motor neurons. Motor neurons of the PNS system carry
impulses or “commands” to muscles and glands (effectors).
 Overview Of The Nervous System

The Major Divisions of the Nervous System

• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the

parts that encased by bones of the skull and spinal
column: the brain and the spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is found
outside these bones and consists of the nerves and
most of the sensory organs.
 Neurons
• The neuron (nerve cell) is the information-processing and
information-transmitting element of the nervous system.
• Four structures or regions of neurons:
1. Cell body or soma
2. Dendrites
3. Axon
4. Terminal buttons.

See the interactive CD

(Animation 2.1, Neurons and Supporting Cells)

• Soma. The soma (cell body) contains the nucleus
and much of the machinery that provides for the life
process of the cell.
• Dendrites. Dendron is the Greek word for tree, and the
dendrites of the neuron look very much like trees.
• Neurons “converse” with one another, and the dendrites
serve as important recipient of this messages.
• The messages that pass from neuron to neuron are
transmitted across the synapse, a junction between the
terminal buttons of the sending cell and a portion of the
somatic and dendritic membrane of the receiving cell.

• Axon. The axon is long, slender tube, often covered by a

myelin sheath.
• The axon carries information from the cell body to
terminal buttons.
• Action potential is a brief electrical / chemical event that
starts at the end of the axon next to the cell body and
travels toward the terminal buttons.
• The action potential is like a brief pulse; in a given axon
the action potential is always of the same size and
duration. When it reaches a point where the axon
branches, it split but does not diminish in size. Each
branch receives a full-strength action potential.

• Terminal buttons. The bud at the end of a branch of an axon;

forms synapses with another neuron; sends information to that
neuron.
• Three principal types of neurons are classified according
to the way in which their axons and dendrites leave the soma:
 Multipolar neuron
 Bipolar neuron
 Unipolar neuron
 Supporting Cells
• Neurons constitute only about half the volume of
the Central Nervous System / CNS.
• The rest consists of a variety of supporting cells

• Glia. The most important supporting cells of the

CNS are the neuroglia, or “nerve glue.”
• Glia (also called glial cells) do indeed glue the CNS
together, but do much more than that.
• Neurons lead a very sheltered existence; they are
buffered physically and chemically from the rest of
the body by the glial cells.
• Glial cells surround neurons and hold them in place,
controlling their supply of nutrients and some of the
chemicals they need to exchange messages with other
neurons; they insulate neurons from one another so that
neural messages do not get scrambled.
• Glial cells also act as housekeepers, destroying and removing
the carcass of neurons that are killed by disease or injury.

• The three most important types of glial cells are:

1. Astrocytes
2. Oligodendrocytes
3. Microglia
 Astrocytes

• Astrocytes provide physical support to neurons and clean up

debris within the brain.
• They produce some chemicals that neurons need to fulfill
their function.
• Astrocytes help to control the chemical composition of the
fluid surrounding neurons by actively taking up or releasing
substances whose concentration must be kept within critical
levels.
• Astrocytes are involved in providing nourishment to neurons.
 Structure and Location of Astrocytes
The processes of astrocytes surround capillaries and neurons of the
central nervous system.
• Besides transporting chemicals to the neurons, astrocytes
serves as the matrix that holds neurons in place−the “nerve
glue.”
• These cells also surround and isolate synapse, limiting the
dispersion of neurotransmitter that are released by the
terminal buttons.
• Besides transporting chemicals to the neurons, astrocytes
serves as the matrix that holds neurons in place−the
“nerve glue.”
• These cells also surround and isolate synapse, limiting the
dispersion of neurotransmitter that are released by the
terminal buttons.
• Astrocytes phagocyte the dead neurons or debris.
 Oligodendrocytes

• Oligodendrocytes provide support to axon and

produce the myelin sheath, which insulates
most axon from another.
• Myelin, 80 % lipid, 20 % protein, is produced by
oligodendrocytes in the form of a tube
surrounding axon.
• The bare portion of myelinated axon is called a
node of Ranvier.
• In the central nervous system, the
oligodendrocytes support axons and produce
myelin. In peripheral nervous system, the
 Microglia

• Microglia are the smallest of the glial cells.

• Like some of astrocytes, the act as phagocytes, engulfing
and breaking down dead and dying neurons.
• In addition, the serve as one the representatives of
immune system in brain, protecting the brain from
invading microorganism.
• They are primarily responsible for the inflammatory
reaction in response to brain damage.
 Blood-Brain Barrier
• Blood Brain Barrier : a semipermeable barrier between the blood and
the brain produced by the cells in the walls of the brain’s capillaries.
• The brain receives a copious supply of blood and chemically guarded
by the blood-brain barrier.
• The blood receives approximately 20 percent of the blood flow from
the heart and it receives continuously.

The blood-brain barrier. (a) The

cells that form the walls of the
capillaries in the body outside
the brain have gaps that permit
the free passage of substances
into and out of the bloods. (b)
the cell that form the walls of the
capillaries in the brain are tightly
joined.
• Other parts of the body, such as skeletal muscles and
digestive system, receive varying quantities of blood,
depending on their needs, relative to those other regions.
• The brain always receives its share. The brain cannot
store it fuel (primarily glucose), nor can it temporarily
extract energy without oxygen, as the muscles can.
• A region of the medulla where the blood-brain barrier is
weak; poisons can be detected and can initiate vomiting
 area postrema.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS OF
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 2
• Structure and function of cells of nervous system 2:
-. Communication within a neuron:
> Resting membrane potential
> The Conduction of action potential
-. Communication between neurons:
> The structure of synapse
> The release of neurotransmitter
• The giant axon of the squid can be 100 to 1000
times larger than a mammalian axon. The giant
axon innervates the squid's mantle muscle. These
muscles are used to propel the squid through the
water.
• Much of what we know about how neurons work
comes from experiments on the giant axon of the
squid.
• How giant is this axon? It can be up to 1 mm in
diameter - easy to see with the naked eye.
 Communication within a neuron

Resting Membrane Potential

• The membrane potential is the difference in electrical
charge between the inside and the outside of a cell.
• When both electrode tips are in the extracellular fluid, the
voltage difference between them is zero. However, when
the tip of the intracellular electrode is inserted into a
neuron, steady potential of about 70mV is recorded. This
steady membrane potential of about-70 mV is called the
neuron’s resting potential.
 Resting potential

• When a neuron is not sending a signal, it is "at rest.“ When a neuron is at rest,
the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside. At rest, potassium
ions (K+) can cross through the membrane easily. Also at rest, chloride ions
(Cl-)and sodium ions (Na+) have a more difficult time crossing. The negatively
charged protein molecules (A-) inside the neuron cannot cross the membrane.
 Action Potential

• The resting potential tells about what happens when

a neuron is at rest.
• An action potential occurs when a neuron sends
information down an axon, away from the cell body.
• The action potential is an explosion of electrical
activity that is created by a depolarizing current.

(Animation 2.2, The Action Potentia

• This means that some event (a stimulus) causes the
resting potential to move toward 0 mV. When the
depolarization reaches about -55 mV a neuron will fire
an action potential.This is the threshold.
• If the neuron does not reach this critical threshold level,
then no action potential will fire.
• When the threshold level is reached, an action potential
of a fixed sized will always fire, for any given neuron,
the size of the action potential is always the same size.
• The action potential is a rapid change in the membrane
potential of a muscle cells or nerve cells. Where the action
potential is characterized by the sudden change from
normal resting membrane potential (resting potential)
becomes positive membrane potential (depolarization) and
then ended with nearly the same speed back to the negative
membrane potential (repolarization). Changes in the
electrical potential caused by changes in electrolyte
concentration inside and outside the cell. The main
electrolytes which contribute to the potential difference
between the inside with the outside of the excitable cell
membrane is sodium (Na +), potassium (K +) and Chloride
(Cl).
 Conduction of the Action Potential

• Action potentials are conducted without decreasing in

amplitude, so the last action potential at the end of an
axon is just as large as the first action potential.

• How are action potentials produced and how are they

conducted along the axon? The answer to both questions
is basically the same: though the action of voltage-
activated ion channels-ion channels that open or close in
response to changes in the level of the membrane
potential.
• There is a brief period of about 1 to 2 milliseconds after the
initiation of an action potential during which it is impossible
to elicit a second one. This period is called absolute
refractory period. The absolute refractory period is followed
by the relative refractory period, i.e. the period during which
it is possible to fire the neuron again, but only by applying
higher-than-normal levels of stimulation.
• The experiment of conduction of the action potential
establishes a basic law of axonal conduction; the all-or-
none law.
• This law states that an action potential either occurs or
does not occur; and once triggered, it is transmitted down
the axon to its end. An action potential always remains
the same size, without growing or diminishing.
• The action potential is an all-or-none events, the action
potential is not the basic element of information; rather,
variable information is represented by an axon’s rate of firing.
• A high rate of firing causes a strong muscular contraction, and
a strong stimulus causes a high rate of firing in axon that
serve the eyes. Thus, the all-or-none law is supplemented by
the rate law.
• Action potentials are not the only kind of electrical signals that
occur in neurons.
• Conduction of an action potential in a myelinated axon is
somewhat different from conduction in an unmyelinated axon.
• In the myelinated area there can be no inward flow of Na+
when the sodium channels open, because there is no
extracellular sodium.
• Myelinated axons conduct impulses more rapidly than
unmyelinated axons because the axon potentials in
myelinated axons are only produced at the nodes of Ranvier.
• One action potential still serves as the depolarization stimulus
for the next, but the depolarization at one node spreads
quickly beneath the insulating myelin to trigger opening of
voltage-gated channels at the next node in a process called
saltatory conduction.
 Communication between neurons

• The primary means of communication between neurons

is synaptic transmission – the transmission of message
from one neuron to another through a synapse.
• The messages are carried out by neurotransmitters,
released by terminal buttons.
 Synapse Structure

• Synapses can occur in three places: on dendrites, on

the soma, and on other axons. These synapses are
referred to as axodendritic, axosomatic, and axoaxonic.
Axodendritic synapses can occur on the smooth
surface of dendrite or on dendritic spines-small
protrusions that stud the dendrites of several types of
large neurons in the brain.
Types of synapses. Axodendritic synases can accur on the smooth
surface of a dendrite (a) or on dendrite spines (b) Axosomatic synapses
occur on somatic membrane (c) Axoaxonic synapses consist of
synapses between two terminal buttons (d).
Detail of a synapse

(Animation 2.3, Synapses)

 Release of Neurotransmitter

• How does an action potential cause synaptic vesicles

to release the neurotransmitter? The process begins
when a population of synaptic vesicles become
“docked” against the presynaptic membrane, ready
to release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft.
• Docking is accomplished when clusters of protein
molecules attach to other protein molecules located
in the presynaptic membrane.

(Animation 2.3, Synapses)

 Release of Neurotransmitter
An action potential opens calcium channels, which enter and bind with the protein
embedded in the membrane of synaptic vesicles docked at the release zone. The
fusion pores open, and the neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft.
Thank You