CHEM 252 : General properties of the Periodic table

COURSE TITLE: Inorganic Chemistry I (General properties of elements)

COURSE CODE: CHEM 251

CREDIT HOURS: 3

LEVEL 200

Dr Collins Obuah

1
 Electronic Configurations
5 and the Periodic Table

5.1 Relative Energies of Orbitals

5.2 Electronic Configurations of Elements
5.3 The Periodic Table
5.4 Ionization Enthalpies of Elements
5.5 Variation of Successive Ionization Ethalpies
with Atomic Numbers
5.6 Atomic Size of Elements

2
 5.1
Relative Energies
of Orbitals

3
 In one-electron systems (e.g. H, He+),
there are no interactions(no shielding
effects) between electrons.
All subshells(s, p, d, f,…) of the same
principal quantum shell have the same
energy.
The subshells are said to be
degenerate.
4
 In multi-electron systems, there are
interactions(shielding effects)
between electrons.
Different subshells of the same
principal quantum shell occupy
different energy levels.
The energies of subshells or orbitals
follow the order : s < p < d < f

5
5.1 Relative energies of orbitals (SB p.106)

Relative energies of orbitals

6
5.1 Relative energies of orbitals (SB p.106)

Relative energies of orbitals

7
5.1 Relative energies of orbitals (SB p.106)

Relative energies of orbitals

8
5.1 Relative energies of orbitals (SB p.106)

Relative energies of orbitals

Electrons enter 4s subshell

before filling up 3d subshell.

9
 Both 4s and 3d electrons are shielded from the
nuclear attraction by the inner core (2,8,8)

10
 4s electron is more penetrating than 3d electron,
spending more time closer to the nucleus.
4s electron experiences stronger nuclear
attraction
4s electron is more stable.

11
 Three rules to build up electronic
configurations
1. Aufbau (building up) Principle
2. Hund’s Rule
3. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

12
 1. Aufbau (building up) Principle
Electrons enter the orbitals in
order of ascending energy.

13
 Letters read across
Numbers read downwards
s p d f g h i
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
14
 1s,

s p d f g h i
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
15
 1s, 2s,

s p d f g h i
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
16
 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s,

s p d f g h i
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
17
 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s,

s p d f g h i
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
18
 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s

s p d f g h i
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
19
 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s

s p d f g h i
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
20
 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s

s p d f g h i
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
21
 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, 8s
s p d f g h i
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
22
8
5.1 Relative energies of orbitals (SB p.106)

Building up of electronic configurations

23
 2. Hund’s rule : -
Orbitals of the same energy must be
occupied singly and with the same spin
before pairing up of electrons occurs.

Carbon
1s 2s 2p

Electrons-in boxes diagram

24
 3. Pauli’s exclusion principle : -
Electrons occupying the same
orbital must have opposite spins.

W. Pauli , Nobel prize

laureate in Physics, 1945

Check Point 5-1

25
 5.2
Electronic
Configurations of
Elements

26
5.2 Electronic configurations of elements (SB p.108)

Ways to Express Electronic Configurations

1. The s, p, d, f notation

Na 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1

1s2, 2s2, 2px2, 2py2, 2pz2, 3s1

27
 Q.17(a)
K 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1

Q.17(b)

Fe 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d6, 4s2

orbitals of the same quantum shell

are placed together

28
 2. Using a noble gas ‘core’

Na [Ne] 3s1
Ca [Ar] 4s2

29
 Q.18(a)
Si [Ne] 3s2, 3p2

outermost shell

Q.18(b)

V [Ar] 3d3, 4s2

outermost shell

30
 3. Electrons – in – Boxes representation

N
1s 2s 2p

(1) All boxes should be labelled

(2) Boxes of the same energies are put
together.
2px 2py 2pz


31
 Q.19

Hund’s rule is violated

Hund’s rule is violated

Pauli’s exclusion principle is violated

32
 Q.20(a)
Phosphorus
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

33
 Q.20(b)
Chromium
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

The half-filled 3d subshell has extra stability due

to the more symmetrical distribution of charge.
The energy needed to promote an electron from 4s
to 3d is more than compensated by the energy
released from the formation of half-filled 3d
subshells.
34
 Q.20(b) [Ar] 3d4, 4s2  [Ar] 3d5, 4s1 + energy

Chromium
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

+
energy
35
 Q.20(c)
Copper
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

The full-filled 3d subshell has extra stability due

to the more symmetrical distribution of charge.
The energy needed to promote an electron from 4s
to 3d is more than compensated by the energy
released from the formation of full-filled 3d
subshells.
36
 Q.20(c) [Ar] 3d9, 4s2  [Ar] 3d10, 4s1 + energy

Copper
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

+
energy
37
 Silicon
3s 3p

[Ne]

Empty orbital(s) in a partially filled

subshell should be shown

38
 S2 , Cl , Ar , K+ , Ca2+

Same electronic configurations

Isoelectronic
Q.22

39
 LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE
Bohr’s table
 Divided into four blocks—s, p, d and f
block
depending upon the type of orbital in
which the last electron is filled up.
The vertical columns of the periodic
table are called groups
 The horizontal rows are called periods

40
 LONG FORM OF PERIODIC
TABLE
• There are seven periods in the table
• There are 18 groups in the table

41
 Causes of periodicity

• Repetition of the elements with similar

properties at regular intervals of atomic
numbers is called periodicity
• physical and chemical properties of
elements depend upon the outer-shell
electronic configuration. Hence, elements
with similar outer-shell electronic
configuration have similar physical and
chemical properties.
42
5.3 The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table

43
5.3 The Periodic Table (SB p.112)

s-block & p-block elements are called

representative elements
s-block

p-block
d-block

f-block

44
 Rare Earth Metals

f-block elements are called

inner-transition elements

45
5.3 The Periodic Table

Check Point 5-3

46
 Periodicity as illustrated by
(i) Variation in atomic radius with
atomic number
(ii) Variation in ionization enthalpy
with atomic number
(iii)Variation in electron affinity
with atomic number

47
(iv)Variation in electronegativity
with atomic number
 5.6
Atomic Size of
Elements

48
 Atomic Radius
• The absolute size of an atom is
difficult to be defined and arbitrary
concepts
• Covalent Radius, Van der Waal’s
Radius, Metallic Radius

49
 Atomic radius is defined as
half the distance between two
nuclei of the atoms joined by a
single covalent bond or
a metallic bond

50
 Factors Affecting the
Atomic Size
Number of Shells
As the number of shells increases, the
outermost-shell electrons in the atom get
farther away from the nucleus increasing
the atomic size

51
 Factors Affecting the
Atomic Size
• Effective Nuclear Charge: Atomic size of
an atom is inversely proportional to the
effective nuclear charge of the atom. As the
effective nuclear charge increases, the force
of attraction between the nucleus and the
outermost-shell electron increases Hence, it
results in decrease of atomic size of the
atom
52
 Factors Affecting the
Atomic Size
• Bond Multiplicity
Atomic size of an atom is inversely
proportional to the bond multiplicity

Increasing the number of bonding to the

atoms decrease the atomic size

53
 Atomic radii of noble gases were obtained by
calculation

54
 Atomic radii  across both Periods 2 and 3

55
5.6 Atomic size of elements

Q: Explain why the atomic radius decreases across a

period.

• Moving across a period, there is an increase in the

nuclear attraction due to the addition of proton in
the nucleus.( in nuclear charge)
• The added electron is placed in the same quantum
shell.
It is only poorly repelled/shielded/screened by
other electrons in that shell.
• The nuclear attraction outweighs the increase in
the shielding effect between the electrons. This
leads to an increase in the effective nuclear charge.
56
 Effective nuclear charge, Zeff, is
the nuclear charge experienced by an
electron in an atom.
In the present discussion, only the
outermost electrons are considered.
atomic size of noble gases are greater than the
preceeding elements in their respective periods. This
is because of the reason that in case of noble gases,
van der Waal’s radius is determined, whose magnitude
is larger than the covalent radius

57
 +3

Li

The outer 2s electron sees the nucleus

through a screen of two inner 1s
electrons.

58
 Two electrons in
the inner shell

2s electron of
Li outside the
inner shell
nucleus
59
 +3

Li

The outer 2s electron is

repelled/shielded/screened by the
inner 1s electrons from the nucleus

60
 +3  +1

Li Li

The nuclear charge experienced by the

2s electron is  +1

61
 +4 +2

Be Be

The inner 1s electrons shield the outer

electrons almost completely

62
 +2 +1.5

Be Be

The two electrons in the same shell

(2s) shield each other less poorly.
Zeff  1.5

63
64
 Atomic radii  down a group

65
5.6 Atomic size of elements

Q: Explain why the atomic radius increases

down a group.

• Moving down a group, an atom would have

more electron shells occupied. The
outermost shell becomes further away from
the nucleus.
• Moving down a group, although there is an
increase in the nuclear charge, it is offset
very effectively by the screening effect of
the inner shell electrons.

66
 Sharp  in atomic radius when a new Period begins

67
5.4 Ionization enthalpies of elements (SB p.117)

Q: Explain why there is sharp  in atomic radius

when a new Period begins
• The element at the end of a period has
the smallest atomic radius among the
elements in the same period because its
outermost electrons are experiencing the
strongest nuclear attraction.

68
5.4 Ionization enthalpies of elements (SB p.117)

Q: Explain why there is sharp  in atomic radius

when a new Period begins
• The element at the beginning of the next
period has one extra electron in an outer
shell which is far away from the nucleus.
Although there is also an increase in the
nuclear charge, it is very effectively
screened by the inner shell electrons.

Check Point 5-6

69
 5.4
Ionization Energies
(Enthalpies) of
Elements
70
 Definition
• It is defined as the minimum amount of energy
required to remove the outermost electron of
an isolated gaseous atom resulting in the
formation of the gaseous cation
• The process is called ionisation and the energy
required is represented as IE measured in
kJ/mole or electron volts per atom

71
 Successive Ionisation Energies
• The ionisation energy corresponding to the
removal of first electron from the outermost
shell of an atom is called IE1. Similarly,
IE2 corresponds to the removal of an
electron from M+(g) and IE3 corresponds to
removal of an electron from M2+(g) and so
on

72
 Factors Affecting the
Magnitude of Ionisation Energy
• Number of Shells and Atomic Size
Ionisation energy is inversely
proportional to the number of shells
present in an atom of an element, i.e.
more the number of shells, greater is
the atomic size, farther is the
electron from the nucleus and easier
is its removal, i.e. lesser is the IE.
73
 Nuclear Charge

• Ionisation energy is directly

proportional to the nuclear charge of
the atom.
• The greater the nuclear charge,
greater is the energy required to
remove an electron from the atom,
i.e. more is the IE

74
 Screening Effect or
Shielding Effect
• The inner-shell electrons act like a screen or shield for the
outermost-shell electron. As a result, the outermost shell
electron experiences less attraction from the nucleus. This is
known as screening effect.
•
• The more the number of electrons in the inner shells
• The greater is the screening effect

• The less energy required to remove an electron from the

outermost shell of an atom resulting in a decrease in the
ionisation energy.
75
 Penetration Effect
• Ionisation energy also depends upon the
penetration effect, i.e. the type of electron
to be removed. The penetration orders of
the orbitals in a given shell is s > p > d > f.

• Ionisaion energy for an electron in any shell

varies in the order of s > p > d > f electrons

76
 Electronic Configuration
• Half filled and fully filled electronic
configurations are more stable
• require more amount of energy for
removal of an electron.
• Atom with fully filled or half filled
electronic configuration have higher
ionisation energies than expected.

77
 Across a Period, there is a general  in I.E.
leading to a maximum with a noble gas.

78
  Effective nuclear charge  from left to
right across the Period

79
 First I.E.  down a group

80
 The outermost electrons are
further away from the nucleus and
are more effectively shielded
from it by the inner electrons

81
5.4 Ionization enthalpies of elements (SB p.116)

The first ionization enthalpies

generally decrease down a group
and increase across a period

82
83
5.4 Ionization enthalpies of elements (SB p.117)

Q: Explain why there is sharp  in IE when a

new Period begins
• The element at the end of a period has a
stable duplet or octet structure. Much
energy is required to remove an electron
from it as this will disturb the stable
structure.
He  1s2 (duplet)
Fully-filled
Ne  2s2, 2p6 (octet) shells
Ar  3s2, 3p6 (octet) Fully-filled
subshell
84
5.4 Ionization enthalpies of elements (SB p.117)

Q: Explain why there is sharp  in I.E. when a

new Period begins
• The element at the beginning of the next
period has one extra electron in an outer
quantum shell which is far away from the
nucleus.
• Although there is also an increase in the
nuclear charge, it is very effectively shielded
by the inner shell electrons.
• Thus the outermost electron experiences a
much less nuclear attraction.

85
 Irregularities : -

86
5.4 Ionization enthalpies of elements

Q: Explain why there is a trough at Boron(B)

in Period 2.

• Be : 1s2, 2s2
B : 1s2, 2s2, 2p1

87
 More
penetrating
1s

More
diffused

88
 In multi-electron
systems,
penetrating power : -
s>p>d>f

89
 2 4r 2
3d electrons are more diffused
(less penetrating)
3d electrons are more shielded by
1s electrons

90
5.4 Ionization enthalpies of elements

Q: Explain why there is a trough at Boron(B)

in Period 2.

• It is easier to remove the less penetrating

2p electron from B than to remove a more
penetrating 2s electron from a stable
fully-filled 2s subshell in Be.

91
 Irregularities : -

92
5.4 Ionization enthalpies of elements

Q: Explain why there is a trough at Oxygen(O)

in Period 2.

• e.c. of N : 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz1

e.c. of O : 1s2, 2s2, 2px2, 2py1, 2pz1

• The three 3p electrons in N occupy three

different orbitals, thus minimizing the
repulsion between the electrons(shielding
effect). It is more difficult to remove an
electron from the half-filled 2p subshell of N.

93
5.4 Ionization enthalpies of elements

Q: Explain why there is a trough at Oxygen(O) in

Period 2.

e.c. of N : 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz1

e.c. of O : 1s2, 2s2, 2px2, 2py1, 2pz1

Alternately, the removal of a 2p electron

from O results in a stable half-filled 2p
subshell.
94
 5.5
Variation of Successive
Ionization Enthalpies
with Atomic Numbers
95
5.5 Variation of successive ionization enthalpies with atomic numbers

Successive I.Es. Show similar

variation patterns with atomic
number.
3rd I.E. > 2nd I.E. > 1st I.E.

96
5.5 Variation of successive ionization enthalpies with atomic numbers )

Plots of successive I.E. are shifted by one

unit in atomic number to the right
respectively.
e.g. Be+ = Li (2, 1) Each represents
B+ = Be (2, 2)
a pair of
isoelectronic
C+ = B (2, 3)
species

97
 Invert relationship between atomic radius and first I.E.

Why is the atomic radius of helium greater than

that of hydrogen, despite of the fact that the first
I.E. of helium is higher than that of hydrogen ?
98
 5.6
Electron affinities of
Elements

99
 Electron affinity
• It is defined as the amount of energy
released when an electron is added to
an isolated gaseous atom to form an
anion, i.e. X(g) + e− → X−(g) + EA
• It is measured in kJ/mol or
electronvolts per atom.

100
 Factors Affecting the Magnitude
of Electron Affinity
• Electron affinity is inversely
proportional to the number of shells
present in an atom of an element

• The more the number of shells the more

the atomic size and lesser the attraction
of the nucleus for the electron to be
added, i.e. lesser electron affinity.
101
 Nuclear Charge

• Greater the nuclear charge, more the

force of attraction of the nucleus for
the electron to be added and hence
more the electron affinity.

102
 Screening Effect or
Shielding Effect
• the morenumber of electrons in the inner
shell, more the screening effect and
hence lesser the force of attraction of
the nucleus for the electron to be added,
i.e. lesser the electron affinity. .

103
 Electronic Configuration
• Exactly half-filled and fully filled
electronic configurations are more
stable and hence such atoms have no
need to accept electrons and have
almost zero and highly negative
electron affinity values..

104
 Variation in a Group
• Down the group,
• there is an increase in the atomic size, nuclear
charge and shielding effect.
• The combined effect of increase in atomic size
and shielding effect dominates over the effect of
increase in the nuclear charge. Force of attraction
of the nucleus for the electron to be added
decreases
• Resulting in a decrease in electron affinity values.

105
 Variation in a Period
• As we move from left to right in a period,
there is no change in the number of shells
• atomic size decreases and nuclear
charge increases
• thereby increasing the force of
attraction of the nucleus for the electron
to be added
• Consequently electron affinity increases.

106
 Exceptions
• elements of Group 2, particularly ‘Be’ and ‘Mg’
have almost zero electron affinity because they
have stable electronic configuration and addition
of an extra electron to the 2p orbital having
considerably higher energies would make the
electronic configuration highly unstable.
• Similar is the case of Group 15 and 18 elements
which have exactly half filled and completely
filled electronic configurations respectively

107
 5.7
Electronegativities of
Elements

108
 Electronegativity
• The electronegativity of an element is a
measure of the power of an atom in a
molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.
Unlike ionisation and electron affinity, it is
not a directly measurable physical quantity.
• It is a theoretical concept for which several
numerical scales have been developed.

109
 Pauling Electronegativity Scale
• Electronegativity concept was introduced
by Pauling in 1932. An arbitrary value of
• 4.0 has been assigned to fluorine most
electronegative element) and the
electronegativities of other elements have
• been calculated against this standard by
the application of following formula:

110
111
 Mulliken’s Method
• Mulliken regarded electronegativity as" the average value
of ionisation potential and electron affinity enthalpy of
an atom when both are taken in electron volts.
• Electronegativity = (IP+EA)/2
• [IP Ionisation enthalpy; EA = Electron Affinity enthalpy]
• However, it was found that Mulliken values were 2.8 times
greater than Pauling values.
• Since only a few electron affinities are known,
the method is not in much use

112
 Allred-Rochow Method
• Allred and Rochow proposed that the
electrostatic force of attraction, between
an atom and its bonding electrons, is a
measure of its electronegativity and is
given by the relation

113
 Factors affecting Electronegativity

• Atomic Size
Electronegativity is inversely proportional to
atomic size as the smaller atom has more
tendency to attract the shared pair of
electrons towards itself and has higher
electronegativity.

114
 Effective Nuclear Charge
• From the Allred and Rochow method,
electronegativity is directly proportional to
the effective nuclear charge of the atoms.
Hence, electronegativity goes on increasing
with the increase in effective nuclear
charge.

115
 Oxidation State
Size of the atom decreases with the increase in its oxidation state and the
tendency of a cation to attract the electrons is more than a neutral atom. Thus,
electronegativity increases with increase in oxidation state. Hence,
electronegativity of iron in its various oxidation state changes as Fe(1.80) <
Fe2+(1.83) < Fe3+ (1.96). It is similar with anion, i.e. electronegativity of an anion
is lesser than its parent atom because of decrease in size. That is why
electronegativity of F−(0.8) is lesser than that of F atom (4.0).

116
 Hybridisation
• Electronegativity of an atom increases with
increase in s-character of its hybrid orbitals
because s-orbital is most penetrating
towards the nucleus. Thus,
electronegativity of carbon atom increases
with change in hybridisation state as
C2H2 > C2H4 > CH4
(sp)  (sp2)  (sp3)
• s-character  50% 33% 25%

117
 Screening Effect
• More the number of electrons in the inner
shell, more the screening effect and hence
lesser the force of attraction of the nucleus
for shared pair of electrons, i.e. lesser the
electronegativity

118
 Variation in a Group
From top to bottom in a group, there is an increase
in the atomic size, nuclear charge and shielding
effect. However, the combined effect of increase
in atomic size and shielding effect results in
decrease of effective nuclear charge due to which
the force of attraction of the nucleus for the shared
pair of electron decreases i.e. the small atoms are
more electronegative than the large atoms.

119
 Variation in a Period
• As we move from left to right in a period,
there is no change in the number of shells
but effective nuclear charge increases
due to decrease in atomic size and hence
electronegativity goes on increasing.
• F is the most electronegative element
and Cs is most electropositive element in
the periodic table.
120
 Applications of electronegativity
• Prediction of Nature of Bond
• The Nature of bond between two bonded
atoms depends upon difference of
electronegativities of these two atoms.
• A−B bond would be nonpolar if (χA − χB)
is equal to zero and would be polar if (χA −
χB) is not equal to zero.

121
 Calculation of Percentage Ionic
Character
• According to Pauling, percentage ionic character
of a covalent bond can be calculated by using the
following correlations.
• Percentage ionic character = [1−e−0.25(χA −
χB)] × 100
• He gave another empirical equation as
• Percentage ionic character = 18 (χA − χB)1.4

122
 Calculation of Bond Length
• Bond length of A–B bond can be calculated by
using the correlation proposed by Schomaker
and Stevenson as
• dA−B = rA + rB − 0.09 (χA − χB)
• where is dA−B is the bond lengths of A−B
bond; rA and rB are the covalent radii of A
and B and (χA − χB) is the electronegativity
difference between the two atoms.
123
 Polarizing Power and
Polarizabilty
• The ability of a cation to polarize the
nearby anion is called its polarizing power

124
 Polarizability
• The polarizability of an atom is the ability
of an atom to to be distorted by an electric
field such as that of a neighboring ion or
atom an ion is said to be highly polarizable
when its electron distribution is distorted
easily

125
 Metallic (electropositive)
character
• Metallic character is the name given to a
set of chemical properties associated with
elements that are metals. These properties
result from how easily or readily metals lose
their electrons these include ability to be
reduced, formation of ionic chlorides oxides
and the ability to reduce hydrogen. Metallic
character increases down the group
126
 Oxidation states
• It is the residual charge left on an atom
of a molecule when other atoms of the
molecule are removed as ions.
• Its value can be zero. positive. negative
or fractional
• An element can have different oxidation
states in different compounds
• In case of alkali and alkaline earth metals
it is fixed i.e" + 1 and + 2 respectively.
127
 Valency
• It is the combining power of an element or how
many bonds an element can form.
• the valency of an element can be calculated from
the loss of electrons, gain of electrons/ sharing of
electrons
• . It is only a number and is not assigned as positive
or negative
• Along a period from left to right it increases
• For the elements of a group it remains the same
umber of valence electrons {electrons of valence or
outer shells) remains the same.
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 Valency
• Oxidation number and valency are not always the
same for example sulphate SO42- and thiosulphate
S2O32-. Sulphur in sulphate has an oxidation
number of + 6 and in thiosulphate it has an
oxidation state of +2. They however have the same
valency or combining power. While oxidation
number may not be associated with the group in
which an element is, valency is always associated
with the group of an element for example Group 1A
elements have a valency of 1
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