Diffraction by Single Slit

Phase angle ()= (2/) (path difference)

= 2/ (1/2*D*Sin ) = D*Sin

I = I0(Sin /)2 Sin 0 /D 3/2D 2/D 0 3/2 Sin 0 0

I I0 0 [4/9 2] I0

-1
0

Interference by Multi Slits I = I0 [Sin (N/2) / Sin /2]2 = 2/ (d*Sin ) N= number of slits

Long distance d

For N=4

Single slit diffraction and multi slit interference I = I0(Sin /)2 [Sin (N/2) / Sin /2]2

Long distance
D

Difference between classical optical elements and diffractive elements Ex: Fresnel Lens Fresnel lens will do the same action as classical Plano-convex lens will do.

The surface profile of the lens that is responsible for the optical power of the element is preserved

Remove the slabs of glass that do not contribute to the bending of light rays to a focal point

Diffraction grating diffracts light in a preferred direction Preferred direction depends on wavelength of the light and characteristics of grooves

Various types of diffractive optical elements

Discrete number of phase controlling surface

Smooth phase controlling surfaces Calculated interference pattern is reduced to a series of phase masks

Interference pattern is recorded on a hologram recording plate

Propagation of light through a classical optical system (lens) can be understood by tracing rays bundles following the Snells law.
DOE can be understood in terms of wavefronts: the surface of constant phase perpendicular to the path of light rays Planar elements consisting of zones which retard the incident wave by a modulation of the refractive index or by a modulation of the surface profile Diffractive optics has emerged from holography

Diffractive optics operates on the basis of interference and diffraction. DOEs have comparable optical properties with those of refractive elements Focal length of a diffractive lens depends on the surface-relief profile

Advantages: Flexibility in complex wavefront construction Aberration correction Thin and Light weight chromatic systems made of only one material Multiple optical elements can be written on a single substrate

Drawbacks Require advanced fabrication technologies Incorporate fabrication (writing) errors and substrate errors Produce multiple diffraction orders and may lead to confusion if not separated and understood correctly Expensive than those for conventional optics Generally less efficient than refractive optics

Novel characteristics of diffractive optics Diffractive optics operates on the basis of interference and diffraction. Spectral characteristics are very different that that of conventional lens

Large negative dispersion

No contribution to petzval sum General aspheric fuction Unique optothermal coefficient Diffractive optics are typically blazed to maximise the amount of light that propagates in a particular diffraction order

Diffraction efficiency is a measure of the energy in a given order relative to the energy Contained in the incident illumination

Applications of diffractive optics Correction of chromatic aberration Classical arrangement

Hybrid lens

Diffractive optical element with complementary dispersion properties to that of glass can be used to correct for color aberration Gratings inherently diffract shorter wavelength light through smaller angles

The amount of dispersion of a material is characterized by Abbe V-number

The expression is based on the refractive indices at three wavelengths of visible region

Crown glass is weak dispersive glass while flint glass is strongly dipersive.

Lensmakers formula to express the power of a lens at each of three wavelengths

* Refractive index is larger than at shorter wavelengths, * the power of the lens is greater * Focal length is shorter than at longer wavelengths

Cauchys formula

Measure of chromatic aberration

Correction of chromatic aberration

Combine two lenses whose total power is equal to the required power but total dispersion is zero

Total power of the lens

Refractive indices and powers are so chosen that the sum of the individual chromatic aberration of lenses get cancelled

Condition for chromatic correction

Power of a diffracting lens

=grating period at a distance r from the axis (r) r represents the profile and therefore is a constant of the lens. Power of the lens changes linearly with wavelength. Powers of the lens at three wavelengths

Amount of chromatic aberration

V-number of a diffractive lens is

Diffractive optics as converging lens

Diffractive optics as wavefront corrector

Diffractive optics as Null element for optical testing

Diffractive optics as beam sampler

Diffractive optics as lenslet array

Diffractive optics as Laser beam splitter Spot array generator Fan-out elements Multiple beam gratings

Historical application: Spectroscopy (analysis of fine spectrum by ruled gratings ) Imaging applications (broadband illumination): Reduction of chromatic and thermal aberrations

Optical communications

Laser machining

Biomedical sensor optics

Projection display systems

Head-up-displays

Fresnel zones

Fresnel zone plate

Block the even zones

Fresnel phase plate

/2

Two level Fresnel phase plate

Four level Fresnel phase plate

Eight level Fresnel phase plate

Multi-level (smooth)

Physical Optics: Blazed Grating

Will direct all the light in to the first order

Prism Prism is sliced in to one-wavelength-high pieces

Blazed Grating

Almost any wavefront can be generated using diffractive optics

1871 Lord Rayleigh

Fresnel zone plate

Acts as a lens

Low efficiency 10%

1898 Wood

Fresnel phase plate

40% efficiency

1950s

Blazed zone plates

1960s

Development of fabrication techniques

1972

Surface profile creation by photolithography

1980s

MIT Lincoln Laboratory Binary optics Program

Fabrication of Diffractive Optical Elements Created as spatially varying surface relief profiles in or on an optical substrate

Simple binary phase diffractive element

=period b=groove size d=depth of the structure b/=duty cycle If duty cycle is half then the grating is a square-wave yep grating

Lithography techniques Developed for microelectronics industry Uses light sensitive polymers

Controlled etching or deposition methods

Two steps Replication of photomasks pattern into photresist Subsequent transfer of the pattern into the substrate material to a precise depth Direct writing Controlled Material removal process

Photolithography

Mask makers can achieve a minimum feature size of 0.8 microns quite easily. However it can go down to 0.3 microns with e-beam lithography

Alignment of mask to the substrate features are very critical

Material (Substrate) for Diffractive optics

Selection of substrate depends on optical and mechanical properties Spectral transmission properties Refractive index of the material For reflective elements: High reflectivity and coating Coefficient of thermal expansion Fused silica is suitable choice for UV to IR region due to its transmission properties and low coefficient of thermal expansion

Photoresist: to protect the underlying substrate during subsequent processing steps

Positive photoresist: when exposed resist dissolves upon development

Negative photoresist: when exposed polymerizes and remains after development
a. Photoactive compound b. Solvent carrier c. Matrix material

Light sensitive component optimum for a specific wavelength

Steps involved in application of photoresist

Clean Substrate Application of adhesion

Spin coating
Soft baking

Exposure and development

Patterns are formed in the photoresist layer Spatially varying pattern of light energy created with a lithographic mask

Mostly binary lithographic masks with clear and opaque regions (chrome on a glass) are prepared

Contact printing : Mask is placed in intimate contact with the photoresist [1:1 transfer of the image] Deteriorates the mask Proximity printing: To mask at proximity to the photoresist by 5 to 50 microns Projection lithography: Mask is imaged onto photresist with a demagnification upto 20X - Using high quality projection lenses, Photoreduction of mask is possible - Becomes expensive - Suitable for volume manufacturing - Small features ~ 0.5 microns can be achieved Uniform ultraviolet light is used for exposure After exposure the Substrate is subjected to a development step Washing away of exposed photoresist layer

Etching During etching process, the areas not covered by the photoresist are removed

Dry etching Reactive ion beam etching (RIBE) Highly controlled Repeatable Anisotropic in nature: it etches preferentially perpendicular to the substrates surface Wet etching Chemical process Isotropic in nature

Important aspects

Etching rate
Quality of etched area

Multi-level diffractive optics A diffractive element with many levels is fabricated by using multiple masks and repeating the lithography process

Lithography errors

j doe
Substrate error Lithographic error

p
p

Lithographic positioning error (constant) Periods

p is large ~ lithographic errors are not critical p is small ~ lithographic errors are becoming critical

(High frequency DOE)

Other sources of error Alignment errors Over/underexposure of photoresist Etching error

Rule of thumb Lithographic errors should be less than 5 percent of the minimum feature size

The system is based on water cooled Ar-ion laser working at a wavelength of 363 nm.

Dual wavefront encoded DOE : Striped

Sliced Combo-DOE

Off-axis spherical wavefront On-axis aspherical wavefront

Combo-DOE, sliced in stripes of 50 m, alternatively assigned to the spherical and aspheric waves

Dual wavefront encoded DOE : Superposed

Fabrication Techniques for Diffractive Optical Elements

1. Lithographic methods 2. Direct machining

3. Replication methods

4. Dynamic methods

1. Lithographic methods

Photolithography Direct lithographic writing

Interferometric exposure
Gray scale lithography Near field holography

Direct lithographic writing Writing the exposure pattern directly into the photoresist. It can be performed by either laser beam Or electron beam Laser beam lithography
(He-Cd) laser or Ar-ion laser

electron beam lithography

There is no need to establish a pattern through a series of mask exposures

Intensity of the beam is varied so that the local exposure is proportional to the required depth of the resist

Can write feature down to 0.7 microns

Laser beam writing machine

E-beam spot size can be down to 0.0125 microns

However, physiochemistry of the resist does not Allow accurate exposure and development below 0.2 to 0.3 microns E-beam lithography

Direct lithographic writing Advantages Eliminate the need of lithographic masks Time effective Cost effective Large number of phase levels can be generated Limitations Direct writing is a serial process. Each element must be written one at a time by the scanning beam

Finite writing-spot sizes cause non-vertical side walls.

Interferometric exposure Optical Interference patterns can be used to expose a photoresist layer

Provide a patterning of very small feature sizes over a large area in one shot

limitation Profile is limited to binary or sinusoidal variations.

Gray scale lithography Photoresist is exposed to varying exposures Mask with spatially varying transmission is used Local surface relief depth in photoresist is proportional to the energy transmitted through that area of the gray-scale mask Multi-level DOE can be fabricated with a single lithographic masking and etching step

Advantages Any arbitrary number of phase levels can achieved

Limitations High cost for mask More sensitive to the Substrate material

Eliminates the need of multi mask alignments

Near field holography

It uses near field diffraction patterns from diffractive phase mask

A phase grating is used that minimises the zeroth order and the irradiance pattern id Generated from the interference of -1 and +1 order of transmitted diffraction orders

Bragg grating fabrication

Direct machining methods

Mechanical ruling

Diamond turning

Laser ablation Laser ablation describes the interaction of intense optical fields with matter, in which atoms are selectively driven off by thermal or nonthermal mechanisms. A focussed beam from an excimer laser is used to directly machine the surface

No need of photoresist and etching process

Local depth of the diffractive structure is proportional to the length of time that beams dwells on a specific location Focused ion beam Focused beam of ions sputters the atoms in the material off the surface

Replication methods
High cost and time in lithography and direct machining

Solution Make a master and replicate it

PolyCarbonate (PC)

Solid plastic heated above transition temp Embossed on thermoplastic foils Security holograms on credits cards

Polymethyle methacrylate (PMMA)

Compact Disks (CD)

Liquid polymer layer is sandwiched between the blank and the mold

Dynamic methods

Reconfigurable DOEs Phase and amplitude characteristics can be turned ON or OFF Acousto-optics modulators Gratings controlled by an array of piezoelectric transducers Transducers are electricaaly addresses and placed on the top of crystal surface

Acousto optic wave generated by piezoelectric transducers propagating through the Crystals create local refractive index modulations

Electro-optics modulators The transducers are electrodes there and can be independently addressed

Photorefractive materials as Dynamic DOEs Photorefractive materials exhibit internal refractive index changes when illuminated by a laser beam or interference pattern The resulting fringe pattern transferred into the crystal as refractive fringe pattern and Act as a diffractive element Refractive pattern can be erased by the use of a powerful laser beam and another pattern can be transferred into the same crystal Liquid crystal spatial light modulators as DOEs

Testing of Diffractive Optical Elements

Measurement of dimensions and geometry of the surface structures
Feature size Locations of the features (transition points) Grating depth Verticality of the grating side wall Edge quality Surface roughness Capabilities of the Fabrication process

Measurement of optical performance of the component

Measurement of dimensions and geometry of the surface structures

Optical microscopy

Mechanical profilometry

Form Talysurf Profilometer

Contact Profilometer Form Talysurf Series 2 PGI Diamond Conical Tip Tip radius 2 m Vertical Range 10 mm Stylus Movement speed .5 mm/min Stylus Force 2mgF

Limitations: 1. Destroy the surface 2. Delivers only 1D profile 3. Only rotationally symmetric profiles can be measured 4. profile is the path traversed by the center of curvature of the stylus tip (not the actual surface)

Avd:- 1. good sensitivity in Z-direction (depth accuracies upto 10 Angstroms) 2. Reflectivity of the surface/object is not a prerequisite

Phase Shifting Interferometry

Developed in 1970s
For high precision measurements

Three unknowns

White light interferometry for roughness measurement A typical optical profilometer based on the Mirau interferometry principle.

For Roughness measurement

Adv. Provides a 3D data set with high speed without destroying the surface

Atomic force microscopy

Developed in 1986

Tip never comes in contact with sample. It measures small forces with a small tip on a cantilevered arm with a feed mechanism
AFMs probe the sample and make measurements in three dimensions, x, y, and z (normal to the sample surface), thus enabling the presentation of three-dimensional images of a sample surface. Resolution in the x-y plane ranges from 0.1 to 1.0 nm and in the z direction is 0.01 nm

Scanning electron microscopy

Scans the surface with high energy beam of electrons in a raster scan pattern

Interaction of surface atoms with electrons gives the information about the surface features