Species and Communities

Ecology and Conservation

 Essential Idea
Community structure is an emergent
property of an ecosystem.
Nature of Science
Use models as representations of the real
world—zones of stress and limits of
tolerance graphs are models of the real
world that have predictive power and explain
community structure.
 IB Understandings
► The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors.
► Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone
species.
► Each species plays a unique role within a community
because of the unique combination of its spatial habitat and
interactions with other species.
 IB Understandings
► Interactions between species in a community can be
classified according to their effect.
► Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the same habitat
if their niches are identical.
 IB Applications
►Distribution of one animal and one plant species to
illustrate limits of tolerance and zones of stress.
►Local examples to illustrate the range of ways in which
species can interact within a community.
►The symbiotic relationship between Zooxanthellae and reef-
building coral reef species.
 IB Skills
► Analysis of a data set that illustrates the distinction
between fundamental and realized niche.
► Use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant or
animal species with an abiotic variable.
A Review of Key Terms

You should review the key

terms from Topic 4 Ecology.
Many of these terms will be
important for this unit.
 Species and Communities
Species and Communities is covered in Topic 4.1 Species,
Communities and Ecosystems.

1. Define Species
2. Define Communities

You are required to understand many key terms for the

unit Option C: Ecology and conservation.
Complete the linked worksheet to create a graphic
organizer for the key terms of this unit.
Species and Communities
 Species and Communities

Read the linked article.

1. Identify reasons that many species are becoming extinct.

2. Explain why wildlife conservation should be a concern

for all governments.
Species are groups of organisms that can
potentially interbreed to produce fertile
offspring.
Community - A community is formed by
populations of different species living together
and interacting with each other
Interactions Between Species
❓ Define:
1. Competition
2. Predator
3. Prey
4. Symbiosis
5. Parasitism
6. Mutualism
7. Commensalism
 Interaction between Species
Interactions between species in a community can be classified according to their
effects.
Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the
unique combination of its spatial habitat and interactions with other
species.
Interaction Effects
If different species compete for the same resource, it can
Competition
result in competitive exclusion or realized niches.
Predators catch and kill prey which reduces prey numbers.
Predation
Predators kill weak and injured prey.
A close relationship between two species.
Symbiosis
The relationships can be mutualism, parasitism or commensalism.
Competition refers to the rivalry between living
things for territory, resources, food, mates, etc.
❓ Deduce whether
competition is
greater between
members of the
same species or
between members
of different
species.

Provide a reason
for your answer.
Predator – Prey relationships
 Predator – Prey relationships
A predator is an organism that kills and eats another organism.

The prey is the organism which the predator kills and eats.

Predator – Prey Relationships
 Predator – Prey Cycle

❓ Explain the
effect of
predator
populations
on prey
populations
.
 Predator – Prey Cycle
● Predators kill and eat prey.
● There is a cycle of increases and decreases for both
predator and prey.
● The changes in the predator population lag behind the
❓ Explain the
prey population.
effect of
● Large predator populations kill large numbers of prey,
predator
causing a decrease in prey.
populations
● The decrease in prey organisms results in a shortage of
on prey
food for the predator.
populations
● The shortage of food causes a decrease in predator
.
numbers.
● Low predator numbers cause the prey numbers to
increase again, causing an increase in predator numbers.
 Symbiosis
Symbiosis is the interaction between two different organisms living in close
physical association.

See linked website

Mutualism Both organisms benefit.
for examples.
One organism benefits, the other See linked website
Parasitism organism is negatively affected. for examples.
One organism benefits, the other See linked website
Commensalism
organism is unaffected. for examples.
Mutualism is a close relationship between two organisms of
different species, in which both individuals benefit from the activity
of the other. 
Parasitism is a close relationship between two organisms where
the parasite benefits and the host is harmed.The parasite lives on or
in the host organism.
Commensalism is a close relationship between
two organisms in which one benefits and the other
derives neither benefit nor harm.
Zooxanthellae and Reef-Building Coral Reef Species

❓ Determine the
type of symbiotic
relationship
between coral
polyps and
zooxanthellae.
Zooxanthellae and Reef-Building Coral Reef Species
Zooxanthellae and Reef-Building Coral Reef Species

Zooxanthellae and coral polyps have a mutualistic relationship.

The photosynthetic zooxanthellae algae produce nutrients such as

glucose used by the corals, as well as removing wastes and
producing oxygen.

The coral polyps provide protection for the zooxanthellae, as well

as providing them with carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
 Coral Bleaching

Read the linked article on coral bleaching.

Increasing ocean temperatures due to global warming is causing

the corals to expel the zooxanthellae.
The corals lose their color and are bleached.
If the ocean temperatures remain high, the zooxanthellae do not
return to the corals, and the corals die.
Keystone Species

❓ Define keystone
species
 Keystone Species

Keystone Species are species that have a disproportionate effect on the

structure of their community.

If the keystone species is removed from the ecosystem it will

result in a significant decrease in the biodiversity (number of
species) of the ecosystem.
 Keystone Species
Keystone Species can influence a community in a number of ways:

● Predators – they exert pressure on lower trophic levels to prevent

them from monopolising certain resources.
Example: Wolves of Yellowstone park.
● Mutualism – they support the life cycle of a variety of species within
a community.
Example: Pollinators
● Builders – they can support the life cycle of a variety of species
within a community.
Example: Beavers building dams on rivers
Niches

❓ Define:

1. Niche
2. Fundamental
niche
3. Realized niche
4. Competitive
exclusion
 Niche - is the particular environment and
lifestyle that is adopted by a species
A niche for an organism includes: Every organism has a
unique niche.
• Habitat
• Food ❓ Use your
• Mode of nutrition understanding of
natural selection to
• Time of year for reproduction
explain why two
• Interactions with other species species cannot have
• Interactions with own species the same niche.
• Interactions with abiotic factors
 Competitive Exclusion
1. A smaller (yellow) species of bird
forages across the whole tree.

2. A larger (red) bird species

competes for resources.

3. Red birds dominate in the middle

of the tree where resources are
most abundant.

Yellow birds are competitively

excluded from the middle of the
tree to avoid competition.
 Competitive Exclusion

Competitive Exclusion – states that no two species can occupy

the same niche.

The species cannot exist together as one will be more

successful and will out-compete and exclude the other.

Competitive exclusion leads to fundamental niches and

realized niches.
 Fundamental and Realized Niches
Fundamental Niche – is the niche that an organism could
potentially occupy, assuming that there is no competition for
resources

Realized Niche – is the niche that an organism does occupy due to

competition with other species for resources.

❓ Identify the fundamental and realized niches for the

yellow birds.

Read the linked article on realized and fundamental niches

Fundamental and Realized Niche of Chthamalus Barnacles

Read the section on

barnacles in the linked
article.

❓ Explain why
Chthamalus barnacles
do not live in all areas
of their fundamental
niche when Balanus
barnacles are present.
Laboratory Experiments on Competitive Exclusion
Georgy Gause carried out experiments on competitive
exclusion using two species of unicellular Paramecia.

Paramecia aurelia alone Paramecia caudatum alone

Note the colour of the trendlines for each species

Laboratory Experiments on Competitive Exclusion
Georgy Gause carried out experiments on competitive
exclusion using two species of Paramecia

Both species together

❓ Identify the species

of Paramecium
which is
competitively
excluded when they
are grown together.
 Shelford’s Law of Tolerance
The law of tolerance was proposed
by Shelford in 1911.
According to the law:
► Organisms have optimal survival
rates for abiotic factors.
► As an organism moves from
areas with optimum conditions,
there is a decrease in survival
rates.
 Shelford’s Law of Tolerance
The law proposes a normal
distribution of a species in response
to a limiting factor.
There are three distinct sections of
the graph
► Optimum range with maximum
survival rates
► Zones of stress with reduced
survival rates
► Zone of intolerance where
organisms cannot survive
❓Identify abiotic factors can affect an organism's distribution
(habitats that it can inhabit)

► Temperature ► Humidity
► pH ► Soil content
► Available minerals ► Breeding sites
► Available light
► Aeration of soil
► Latitude
► Climate
► Altitude
► … (can you think of more?)
 Distribution of Species
The IB expects you to explain the distribution of one animal and
one plant species to illustrate limits of tolerance and zones of
stress.
If possible, research local plant and animal species.

❓ If that is not possible then, explain the distribution of the:

► Saguaro cactus - see linked article.
► Staghorn coral- see linked articles from the
Knowledge Project and Aquarium of the Pacific.
Distribution of the Saguaro Cactus
 Distribution of the Saguaro Cactus
► The Saguaro cactus can only be found in the Sonoran desert (a
relatively wet desert with two rainy seasons) in the US.
► Saguaros thrive best at (relatively) high temperatures where water is
relatively scarce for most of the year.
► Cold temperatures and frost kill Saguaro, so they are not found above
an altitude of 1300m.
► They survive best in coarse soils of south-facing (warmer) rocky slopes.
► Saguaros grow very slowly as they use CAM physiology for
photosynthesis, so they are outcompeted in areas with faster growing
plants when water is plentiful.
► Saguaro cacti often begin life in the shelter of a "nurse" tree or shrub
which can provide a shaded, moist habitat for their germination.
Distribution of Staghorn Coral
 Distribution of Staghorn Coral
► Staghorn coral is found in warm, sunny, clear tropical waters.
► Staghorn coral is found to a depth of 30m with gentle wave action, in coral
reefs located within latitudes of 25o N to 25o S.
► Staghorn coral requires a temperature range between 23 oC and 29oC.
► Staghorn coral requires a salinity range of 32% to 40%.
► Decreases in ocean pH adversely affect staghorn coral.
► Staghorn coral require the presence of zooxanthellae, to provide most of
their nutrients.
► High turbidity (murkiness) reduces photosynthesis in zooxanthellae, which
means the corals require clear water to thrive.
 ToK
Random samples are taken in studies involving large geographical
areas (or if not enough time is available to sample the entire area).
► Is random sampling a useful tool for scientists despite the
potential for sampling bias?

Random sampling using quadrats is covered in Topic 4.1

Species, Communities and Ecosystems
❓ Explain how you could use quadrats to randomly
sample a population in an ecosystem.
Belt Transects - Use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant
or animal species with an abiotic variable.

Belt transects can be used to

investigate changes in species
distribution as an abiotic factor
changes, such as:
► Change of distance from low
tide or lake edge
► Change of altitude
► Change of light intensity
Belt Transects - Use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant
or animal species with an abiotic variable.

The belt transect method is used when there is a gradual change from one side of a
habitat to another, like the change in light between the outer edges of a forest to the
centre (BBC Bitesize).

A transect is a path along which one counts and

records occurrences of the species
of study (e.g. plants) within quadrats.

It requires an observer to move along a fixed

path and to count occurrences along the path.
Review
 Essential Idea
Community structure is an emergent
property of an ecosystem.

Nature of Science
Use models as representations of the real
world—zones of stress and limits of
tolerance graphs are models of the real
world that have predictive power and explain
community structure.
 IB Understandings
► The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors.
► Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone
species.
► Each species plays a unique role within a community
because of the unique combination of its spatial habitat and
interactions with other species.
 IB Understandings
► Interactions between species in a community can be
classified according to their effect.
► Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the same habitat
if their niches are identical.
 IB Applications
►Distribution of one animal and one plant species to
illustrate limits of tolerance and zones of stress.
►Local examples to illustrate the range of ways in which
species can interact within a community.
►The symbiotic relationship between Zooxanthellae and reef-
building coral reef species.
 IB Skills
► Analysis of a data set that illustrates the distinction
between fundamental and realized niche.
► Use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant or
animal species with an abiotic variable.
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