CHAPTER 3

DRYING PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

 Drying is a method of preservation of an agricultural crop that
involves the removal of moisture to a level considered safe for
storage.

For grains, this means storage at a moisture content of 13-14%.

At this point, biological deterioration and insect attack are
reduced to an acceptable minimum.
Process of removing moisture from a material until
the desired level is reached and equilibrium with
the storage environment is achieved.

Drying is accomplished by vaporizing the water

that is contained in the food, and to do this the
latent heat of vaporization must be supplied.
 Grains tend to gain or lose moisture depending on the
surrounding atmosphere. Such a material is classified as
hygroscopic.

The property of air most concerned with this phenomenon is

vapor pressure.

If the vapor pressure of the air is greater than the vapor pressure
exerted by the grain, the grain will absorb moisture. The
reverse is also true.
Grain drying is a process of simultaneous heat
and moisture transfer.

To adequately understand the operation of

drying, the reader has to be acquainted with
the basics of psychrometrics, equilibrium
moisture content, airflow, and drying rate.
Drying permits the farmer to secure a greater
economic return for the following reasons:

1. Early harvest (at high MC) minimizes field

damage and shatter loss and facilities for
tillage operations.
2. Long period storage without product deterioration
is possible.
3. Viability of seeds is maintained over long periods.
4. Production operations are facilitated for such
products as cotton and corn.
5. Products with greater economic value are produced
(tobacco, dried fruits and vegetables)
6. Waste products can be converted to useful products
(livestock feed from fruit pulp and almond hulls)
PSYCHROMETRY
• the study of the properties of mixtures of air
and water vapour.
• important because atmospheric air is not dry
but a mixture of air and water vapour and air
at different conditions affects the product
during drying and storage operations
Moisture air may be considered as a binary (two-component)
mixture of dry-air and low-pressure water vapour.

Dry-air component is consisting of nearly constant

composition of the following gases:
– Nitrogen 78.084% by volume
– Oxygen 20.9476
– Argon 0.934
– Carbon dioxide 0.0314
– Rare gases traces
Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air
• For pure substance, any two (2) independent properties
defined the state of the substance such as pressure and
temperature.

• binary mixtures such as moist air, any three (3) independent

properties define the state of the mixture

• moist air conditioning process (like drying) involving moist air

take place at constant pressure, two (2) other independent
properties or parameters (such as dry bulb temperature and
specific volume) are enough to define the state of moist air
• The major physical properties of air that affect the
drying rate of grains are the following:
– relative humidity or humidity ratio
– dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature
– specific volume
– Enthalpy
– Presure
– Dew point temperature
1. Relative humidity (RH) and Humidity ratio (W)

RH% = existing partial pressure of water vapour

saturation pressure of pure water at same temp

Humidity ratio is the mass of water vapor contained in each

kilogram of dry air.
2. Dry-bulb temperature (Tdb) and Wet-bulb temperature (Twb)

Dry-bulb temperature is the temperature of the air as measured

by an ordinary thermometer.

The temperature of the air as measured by an ordinary

thermometer, whose bulb is covered with a wet wick is the wet-
bulb temperature.

Knowledge of the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures allows

rapid determination of the relative humidity of the air on a
psychrometric chart. The temperatures of air are expressed in
degrees Celsius, 0C, or degrees Kelvin, 0K.
• A relative motion between the air and the thermometer
is necessary to take a wet-bulb temperature reading.
• The air passing through the wet cloth covering the bulb
of the thermometer absorbs some of the moisture as it
evaporates.
• As a consequence the bulb is cooled, and the process is
called “evaporative cooling”.
• The wet bulb thermometer therefore registers a reading
lower than the dry bulb thermometer.
3. Specific volume, υ
• Specific volume is the volume of moist air per unit
mass of dry air
• expressed in cubic meters per kilogram of dry air.
• The power required by the fan is affected by the
specific volume of the drying air.
4. Enthalpy
Enthalpy of moist air is the energy content per unit
mass of dry air above a certain reference
temperature (usually 0±C).

It is denoted in kilojoules per kilogram of dry air.

The enthalpy of the mixture of dry air and
water vapour is the sum of the enthalpy of the
dry air and the enthalpy of the water vapour.

The zero value of the water vapour is

saturated liquid water at 00C, this is the same
reference point used for steam.
Enthalpy can be determined using the formula:
H= cpT + Whg kJ/kg-0K
 
where:
Cp = specific heat of dry air at constant pressure (1.0 kJ/kg-0K)
T = temperature of moist air, 0K
W = humidity ratio of moist air at the same temperature
hg = enthalpy of saturated vapour at the same temperature,
KJ/Kgof dry air
Processes Using Psychrometric Chart
Psychrometric charts for moist air were developed to
facilitate the determination of the psychrometric
properties.

Using a psychrometric chart, processes will be

explained in relation to its pyschrometric properties.
1. Sensible heating or cooling

- rate of heat transfer due to

the differences in dry bulb
temperature of the air.
- This process is a horizontal
line extended to the right for
sensible heating and to the left
for cooling.
- This is a horizontal line since
there is no change in humidity
ratio. Qs = mcp (T2-T1)
2. Humidification
- process of adding to the air.

There are two types of humidification process and

these are:
- Adiabatic humidification process is a constant wet
bulb temperature process since the latent heat added
resulted to a decrease in dry bulb temperature.
- For non adiabatic humidification the net heat added
is positive.
Humidification
3. Cooling and humidification

- this process results to a decrease in

dry bulb temperature and humidity
ratio.

- This is the process for summer air

conditioning where heat and
moisture must be removed to
condition the air.
- The total heat removed in the
process is termed as refrigeration
capacity since this is the total heat
removed in the cooling coil.
Qref = m (h2 - h1)
where:
Qref = refrigeration capacity
m = mass of the air in Kg
h2 = enthalpy of leaving air
h1 = enthalpy of entering air
4. Chemical dehumidification
– removal of moisture using chemical or gel to
absorbed the moisture in the air. This process is a
constant enthalpy process
5. Mixing process
– process of mixing two different streams of air at the desired
temperature and humidity ratio. The following equations are important
in determining the properties of mixed air.

Air mass balance equation:

m1 + m2 = m3 Equation (1)
 

Water mass balance equation:

m1w1 + m2w2 = m3w3 Equation (2)
 
Energy equation:
m1h1 +m1h2 = m3h3 Equation (3)
To determine the properties of mixed air, h3 can be computed using
equations (1) and (3) while W3 can be computed using equations (1)
and (2). The intersections of h3 and W3 will give the condition of
mixed air
Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
Function of the temperature, the relative
humidity, and the product
An equilibrium condition exists such that
there is no net exchange of moisture between
the material and the air.
It does not mean that the material and the air
have the same moisture content
If air remains in contact with a stored product
for a sufficiently long time, partial pressure of
water vapor in the air reaches equilibrium
with partial pressure of water vapor in the
material
Eventually a stable moisture content --- EMC is
reached
EMC is a very important.
 concept in the field of drying and storage of
agricultural and forestry products, pharmaceuticals
and food products.
allows researchers to predict whether a product
will loss or gain moisture at a certain temperature
and relative humidity
high MC tends to favor microbial activity and
product metabolism
EMC varies with temperature and RH, usually
expressed as a dry basis
 for a fixed RH or vapor pressure:

temperature EMC
Determining Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
1. Static Method
o Atmosphere surrounding the product is allowed to
equilibrate without mechanical agitation of air or
product
2. Dynamic Method
o Air surrounding the product as the product itself is
moved mechanically
o Faster but more complicated
Static Methods for EMC Determination
1. Uses saturated salt solution or acid solution for
maintaining a constant RH
2. Allow the product to equilibrate inside an
enclosed test chamber, then measure RH
-For both methods, final MC is determined by an acceptable
method ( e.g. oven drying)
- for static method. Mold can be a problem at RH > 80%
-Errors can depict if mold is present
• Dynamic methods
– Air is bubbled through absorption towers
containing acid /salt solution to achieve constant
RH before passing through the product

– Or air is mechanically moved around the product

in an enclosed chamber and allowed to come to
equilibrium; RH is then measured
RH control using Saturated Salt Solutions
• Salt solution are more stable, less corrosive,
less expensive compared to acid solutions
• Different salts in solutions will exert a different
vapor pressure according to the chemical, its
concentration and temperature
• Salt solution needs to be saturated with a
small excess of un dissolved crystals remaining
• This will ensure that the solution remains saturated and
provides constant RH even if moisture is absorbed during the
entire testing process

• Some salts produce a greater variation in RH than others when

temperature changes

• For quick recovery of RH in a closed condition after

opening/closing, the headspace should be as small as possible
compared to the surface area of the solution
• Example of salts:
NaCl
( 36-37 grams/100 grams H2O, 74.7 to 75.5 % at 32 to 122 oF)

Barium Chloride
( 36-41 grams/100 grams H2O, 90 to 91 % at 72 to 104 oF)

Calcium Chloride
(35 to 44 % at 20 to 70 oF)

Lithium Chloride
(11 % at 68 to 100 oF)
RH control using acid solutions
• This method uses acid solutions of varying
concentration to obtain different RH levels
• Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3),
hydrochloric acid (HCL)
• At 50 oF, H2SO4 Concentration by
weight
RH, %

20 % 87.4
40 % 56.6
60 % 15.8
80 % 3.88
Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
EMC Values of different grain have been determined over a
wide range of temperatures and relative humidity. These values
are available in the literature in table and in graph form. The
graphs are known as EMC isotherms.

EMC isotherms are plots at a particular temperature of the

percent moisture content (on the coordinate) versus the
percent relative humidity (on the abscissa).
• To facilitate drying calculations, equations have been
developed for sigmoid-shaped EMC isotherms.

• International agreement appears to have been reached

to recommend the theoretically based Guggenhein-
Anderson-de Boer (GAB) isotherm for the calculation of
the EMC values for all food products including grains.

• The empirical isotherm equation developed specifically

for grains by Chung-Pfost has been used extensively in
the past for grain dryer design.
• EMC data allow calculation of the heat of
vaporization of moisture from the grain.

• Heat of vaporization is a measure of the energy

requirements to dry grain at different moisture
contents and temperatures.

• Knowledge of the heat of vaporization of a grain is

essential for the calculation of the fuel consumption
of the crop during the drying calculations.
 Equations for Equilibrium Moisture Contents
1. Henderson Equation

1  rh  exp cTM en

where : rh  equilibrium relative humidity, decimal

M e  equilibrium moisture content, % dry basis
T  temperature, R
c, n  cons tan ts
2. Chung-Pfost Equation
M  E * F ln T  C * lnRH 
RH  exp A / T  C exp B * m 

where : RH  equilibrium relative humidity, decimal

M  equilibrium moisture content, % dry basis, decimal
T  temperature, o C
A, B, C , E and F  cons tan ts
3. Modified Halsey Equation

M e   expaT  cs  / lnRH 

where : RH  relative humidity of air

M e  equilibrium moisture content
Ts  temperature,O C
a, c  cons tan ts
4. Chen-Clayton Equation
1

M e   d ln ln RH  /  aTsb
cTs


where : RH  relative humidity of air

M e  equilibriu m moisture content
Ts  temperature,o C
a, b, c, d  cons tan ts
MECHANISMS OF DRYING

During drying, two processes are occurring at the

same time:
• Heat transfer to the solid to provide heat for
evaporation of moisture

• Mass transfer of moisture (liquid or vapor form) from

within the solid to surface, and water vapor from the
surface to the drying medium.
 Heat transfer occurs under conditions of high
temperature to low temperature.

In the same manner vapor transport is driven by a

regime of high vapor pressure to low vapor pressure.

The most practical way to cause this is to raise the

temperature of the surrounding air by the addition of
heat.
 To keep the drying process moving, the
surrounding air has to be replenished by warm, low
humidity air.

If the surrounding air is not moved, the relative

humidity will rise to a level which will no longer
allow movement of water vapor into the air.

Thus, air movement is an important factor in

drying.
Drying stops when the vapor pressure of the
grain becomes equal to the vapor pressure of
the surrounding air.
The process of drying is
divided into two major
portions:
1. Constant Rate
Period
2. Falling Rate Period
 Constant drying rate period

• Drying takes place from the surface of the grain similar

to evaporation from a free water surface.
• This period is quite short and will proceed until free
moisture disappears from the surface.
• At this point, the grain reaches its critical moisture
content.

Critical moisture content (CMC) is the point where

drying rate ceases to be constant. This is between 40% -
46% MCwb for rice.
• In constant rate period, the grain temperature does
not increase appreciably due to the effect of
evaporative cooling. Also, removal of moisture from
the grain is fastest during this period and
represented by:

dM
C
dt
 Falling drying rate period

• Drying rate depends on the rate of moisture diffusion from

the middle to the surface of the grain.
• The drying rate is non-linear and decreases as moisture
content decreases.
• This takes place from the grain’s critical moisture content
until such time the grain reaches its equilibrium moisture
content.

The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of a grain species is

the moisture content to which the grain will dry after it has
been exposed to the drying air for an infinite period of time.
• Falling rate periods occur after the removal of the surface
moisture or during the removal of moisture within the grain.

• During this period of drying, grain temperature is slowly

increased by the incoming hot air, thus, the vapor pressure
within the kernel increases and slowly moves out of the
drying air.

• Drying in this stage is dependent on grain characteristics,

temperature of the kernel, and the vapor pressure of the
hot air.
• If the drying is continued, the drying air will no longer absorb
moisture as it has come in equilibrium with the vapor
pressure of the grain. The grain moisture content at this point
is called equilibrium moisture content, EMC.

• The drying rate equation for this period is analogous to

Newton’s Law of cooling that can presented by:

dM
 MR  k M  M e 
dt
• Separating the variables and integrating between
limits results in
dM
 MR 
M  Me 
 exp kt 
dt M o  M e 

where :M moisture content at any time, dry basis

M o  initial moisture content, dry basis
M e  equilibrium moisture content, dry basis
k  drying cons tan t , hr 1
MR  moisture ratio
 Physical Processes of Grain Drying

• Grain drying consists of two fundamental processes.

• Normally heat energy is supplied to the grain bulk by blowing

air through the bulk.

• The rate of heat supply depends on the airflow rate, the air
temperature, and the temperature difference between the air
and grain.
• The rate of moisture evaporation depends on the
rate of heat supply, the moisture content of the
grain, and the difference in moisture content
between the grain and air.

• The minimum amount of energy required to

evaporate moisture into the air is about 2.4 MJ/kg of
water.

• In heated-air dryers the amount of energy required is

usually more than this.
• Drying in-bin with air at near-ambient conditions can
require less than this because the thermal energy in
the air due to heating by the sun is used more
efficiently than in a heated air dryer.

• Some dryers used a heated surface to conduct heat

into grain but again the surface area must be large to
obtain a reasonable drying capacity.
 Grain Drying in Thin Layers

• A thin layer of grain is assumed one kernel thick.

• Grain at high moisture content (above 26% for

paddy) has an equilibrium relative humidity of 100%.

• At the start of drying free water exists throughout

the kernels and at the external surface of the kernels.
• As air is blown through the layer, moisture
evaporates from the surface similar to what
would occur on a wet bulb thermometer in
the air.

• The grain surface comes to the wet bulb

temperature following a constant enthalpy
process.
• The rate of heat transfer from the air to the kernel
surface is determined by the difference between the
dry bulb temperature of the air and the kernel
surface temperature (which is equal to the wet bulb
temperature of the air).

• The vapor diffusion from the kernel surface to the air

is determined by the difference in vapor pressure or
moisture concentrations of the air.
• AT the kernel surface the moisture has the vapor
pressure of free water at the wet bulb temperature
and in he moving air the vapor pressure is
determined by the temperature and relative
humidity of the incoming air.

• While the moisture on the kernel surfaces acts like

free water, the flow of heat and the rate of drying
remain constant. This is called the “constant –rate
drying period”.
• Until a “critical moisture content” is reached, moisture
continues to move as free water to the kernel surface
and the rate of drying remains constant.

• At the critical moisture content, free water ceases to

exist at the kernel surface and the vapor pressure at
the surface begins to decrease so that the driving
force for vapor diffusion into the air decreases. The
ERH of the moisture in the kernel begins to decrease
below 100%.
• Simultaneously the temperature of the kernel
surface begins to rise above the wet bulb
temperature of the air and so the rate of heat
transfer from the air to the grain begins to decrease.

• On psychrometric chart the condition of the

moisture on the kernel surface moves along the
constant wet bulb line from the 100% relative
humidity point toward the condition of the incoming
air.
• Moisture begins to evaporate inside the kernel so the
resistance to vapor diffusion through the kernel
material to the surrounding air becomes an
important factor.

• The rate of drying is also limited and reduced by the

increasing resistance to heat transfer from the kernel
surface through the kernel material to where the
moisture is evaporating.
• As drying progresses, these resistances increase and the
distances from the kernel surface to the moisture inside
the kernel increases.

• As the moisture content decreases, the ERH

approaches the relative humidity of the incoming air
decreasing the vapor pressure difference between air
and grain.

• When the rate of drying decreases it is called the

“falling rate drying period”.
• The grain temperature approaches the incoming air
temperature. Rates of drying may also decrease
because the thermal conductivity of dried material near
the kernel surface is less than the originally wet paddy
grains.

• Surface or case hardening may occur restricting the flow

of water vapor from the kernels.

• The thickness of the thin layer in practical terms can be

greater than one kernel thick.
• To be defined as a thin layer, the condition of the air
leaving the layer must change only slightly from the
condition of the air entering the layer so that it can be
assumed that all the grain in the layer is exposed to
the same air conditions.

• Grains are hygroscopic and will lose or gain moisture

until equilibrium is reached with the surrounding air.
The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is dependent
on the relative humidity and temperature of the air.
Drying Efficiency
• The efficiency of the drying operation is an
important factor in the assessment and
selection o the optimum dryer for a particular
task.
• Factors affecting drying efficiency:
– Ambient air conditions
– Crop
– Design and operation of dryer
• Sensible Heat Utilization Efficiency (SHUE)

heat utilized for moisture removal

SHUE 
total sensible heat in the drying air

• Fuel Efficiency

heat utilized for moisture removal

Fuel Efficiency 
heat sup plied from fuel
 • Drying Efficiency

heat utilized for moisture removal

Drying Efficiency 
heat available for moisture removal
 Analysis to Drying
1. Drying Time
each time unit is the time of one-half
response of rain fully exposed to the air
entering the drying systems
2. Grain Moisture
moisture is expressed as moisture content
ratio M Me
Mo  Me
3. Grain depth
a depth factor is describe as “containing
enough grain that if all the theoretical
available heat could be used it would all dry to
equilibrium” in a period of time equal to the
time of one half response
CATEGORIES OF DRYING PROCESS

• Air and contact drying

• Vacuum drying
• Freeze drying
 Air and contact drying

heat is transferred through the foodstuff

either from heated air or from heated
surfaces. The water vapor is removed with
the air
 Vacuum drying

The advantage is taken of the fact that

evaporation of water occurs more readily at
lower pressures than at higher ones. Heat
transfer in vacuum drying is generally by
conduction, sometimes by radiation.
 Freeze drying

In freeze drying, the water vapor is sublimed

off frozen food. The food structure is better
maintained under these conditions. Suitable
temperatures and pressures must be
established in the dryer to ensure the
sublimation occurs.
 DRYING METHODS
• SUNDRYING
– Predominant method of drying in the Philippines
because of economic considerations
– No expensive equipment is required and no fuel is used.
– Labor for the hauling and mixing of palay is the only
expense.
– big problem during the wet season resulting to the large
volume of sprouted and spoiled harvest which reduces
farmers’ income, thus, mechanical drying is a logical
solution.
 Location Echague, Isabela Muñoz, N. Ecija Los Baños, Lag.
Table 1. Initial %MCwb 28 24 20 28 24 20 28 24 20
Probability Month Percent Probability
of success
of paddy JAN 20 30 50 90 90 90 60 70 90
sundrying FEB 70 80 90 90 90 90 80 80 90
MAR 70 80 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
APR 80 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
MAY 90 90 90 80 90 90 80 90 90
JUN 70 80 90 70 70 80 70 70 90
JUL 60 60 80 60 70 80 70 70 80
AUG 40 50 80 40 50 60 60 70 90
SEP 60 70 80 40 40 60 70 70 90
OCT 20 20 40 60 70 80 60 60 80
NOV 20 20 40 60 70 80 60 70 80
DEC 10 10 40 80 80 90 50 60 80
• MECHANICAL DRYING
– A mechanical dryer is consists of burner, blower,
plenum and drying bin
– The burner or furnace burn the fuel to heat the
drying air.
– The blower forces the heated air through the mass
of grains.
– The plenum equalizes the air pressure in the
drying bin which holds the grains.
 Burner
Assembly
Drying Bin

Blower
Plenum

Parts of a mechanical dryer

• SOLAR DRYING
- Solar energy is tapped by the use of a collector and
converted to a more convenient form of energy and
either directly use or store it for later delivery to the
point of use.
- , solar radiation would be allowed to pass through a
transparent sheet where heat absorbent (stones, black
sheets) are placed and in turn heat the air.
- Solar drying systems are categorized as passive or
active.
PASSIVE SYSTEM
- depends on natural convention, conduction, or radiation
to transfer thermal energy from the point of collection to
the storage component and to the point of use.
- Many agricultural applications such as greenhouses, field
drying of crops use passive solar systems.
ACTIVE SYSTEM
- has a mechanical mean such as pump or fan to drive a
heat-transfer fluid from one part of the system to another.
- Active solar systems have been used for decades and
proven feasible in many parts of the world.
Effective use of solar energy for grain and crop drying depends on:

1) Geographical location
This will affect the availability of solar radiation at harvest time and the relative
humidity at that location.
2) Crop type
Different grain crops are harvested at different seasons and have the different
physical properties that will affect the drying rate.
3) Size of operation
The size of the drying operation must accommodate the size of the crop so that
the harvest can proceed in an orderly manner.
4) Government policy
Potential users because of the investment cost when compared with the
conventional method do not readily accept the solar drying systems. A
government financed economic trade-off program may be necessary to
encourage greater use of solar energy.
• The Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) in Thailand has developed a
low cost solar dryer for paddy.
• It consisted of a solar air heater, a box for the grain bed, and a
chimney giving a tall column of warm air to increase the convection
effect.
• Clear plastic sheet covering the grain bed allows it to be heated from
above by the sun while protecting it from rain.
• Black plastic sheet is used to cover the ground and serves as heat
absorber The construction cost of AIT solar dryer (Figure 8) ranges
from 4,000-5,000 baht dependent on the availability of the materials
in each location.
• The dryer is capable of drying one metric ton of paddy. The drying
period depends on the availability of sunlight. Life expectancy of the
dryer is one year
AIT Solar dryer design concept.
Burners/furnace
There are two types of furnace based on the method of heat
transfer to the drying air: direct-fired and indirect-fired
furnaces.
– Direct-fired burner
• burned fuel is forced through the mass of grains.
• This type is efficient in the use of heat which makes
operation less expensive.
• However, there is the possibility of damage or
undesirable odor, color and taste imparted on the grains
because of smoke and unburned fuel comes in contact
with the rain s being dried.
- Indirect-fired burner
– the burned fuel is directed to a heat exchanger
and discharged through a smokestack.
– The heat exchanger, in turn, heats the drying air.
– This type is safer but less efficient in heat
utilization and more expensive to acquire and
operate.
Blowers
 The two types of blowers that are commonly used in drying
systems are propeller and centrifugal types.

1. Propeller type– used for large air volume at low static

pressure. The air moves parallel to the fan axis and at a right
angle to the field of rotation of the blades.
2. Centrifugal type– used for high static pressure at low air
volume. the air enters the housing parallel to the axis and is
discharged perpendicular to the direction in which it enters
the fan
Drying Bins
 BINS

BATCH CONTINUOUS

SHALLOW BED DEEP BED MIXING NON-MIXING

Types of Drying Bins

Shallow-bed batch type bin
• widely used by small farmers because of their relatively
low cost and ease of operation.
• the bin has a perforated floor with a flat or sometimes
inclined bed to facilitate unloading
• Heated air is supplied to an airtight enclosure at the
bottom called plenum chamber to diffuse the air uniformly
through the grain mass.
• Optimum drying parameters are 12 inches depth, 110 °F
air temperature and 30 – 35 cfm of grain air flow .
Deep-bed batch type bin
• usually used for in-storage drying using slightly heated air to
prevent overdrying at the bottom and low air flow rate.

Shallow bed batch type

deep bed batch type

• Continuous-flow non-
mixing type bin:
• It is consist of two parallel
screen columns up to 18
inches apart.
• The space between the
columns serves as the bin.
• The space inside the
smaller column is the
plenum where heated air
is introduced.
Continuous-flow mixing type bin
• mixing of grains occurs as the grains flow down the system.
• It is consist of a bin with layers of air channels shaped like
inverted “V”s
• Each layer is offset so that the tops of the inverted “V”s split
the streams of flowing grains causing the mixing action.
• Alternating channels are air inlet and outlet openings. Heated
air is introduced at many points in the descending paddy
through the air channels.
Continuous flow mixing type
Drying Techniques
• Continuous-flow intermittent drying

– Commercial continuous flow intermittent dryers use heated air

temperature of 140 – 170 °F.

– Grain heating time is 15 minutes per exposure

– Followed by a tempering time of 3 – 4 hours

– Blower remains running during the tempering period

• Flash drying
– Grains are subjected to high air temperature of
170 °F for a 15 min and then discharged.

– The grain moisture is reduced to an intermediate

level of 18% MCwb which is a safe level to store
grains up to three weeks while waiting for
sundrying.