THE

PHYSICS
OF SIGHT
AND
HEARING
The Physics of Hearing: Objectives
• Students should be able to:
Discuss the response of the ear to incoming sound waves;
sensitivity, frequency response and intensity
State the orders of magnitude of the threshold of hearing and the
intensity at which discomfort is experienced
Use the equation intensity level in
Discuss the subjective qualities of the terms ‘noise’ and ‘loudness’
Sound Waves; Recap
• Sound waves (longitudinal wave) consist of vibrating
particles, which knock into other particles causing those
particles to vibrate and knock into more particles and so on;
this is how sound waves travel away from their source. The
vibrations enter our ears, interact with our eardrums and are
converted into nerve signals that are sent to our brains.
Properties of sound waves
• The wavelength of a sound wave indicates the distance that
wave travels before it repeats itself. (the length of one full
oscillation)
• The amplitude of a wave defines the maximum displacement
of the particles disturbed by the sound wave as it passes
through a medium. A large amplitude indicates a large sound
wave and vice versa.
• The frequency of a sound wave indicates the number of
sound waves produced each second. Low-frequency sounds
produce sound waves less often than high-frequency sounds.
• The period of a sound wave is the amount of time required to
create a complete wave cycle. Each vibration from the sound
source produces a wave’s worth of sound.
• The velocity of a sound wave tells us how fast the wave is
moving and is expressed as meters per second. (The speed of
sound in air is about 343)
Table below shows different sound perceptions
and the physical quantity responsible for it
Perception Physical quantity
Pitch Frequency
Loudness Intensity and Frequency
Number and relative intensity of multiple frequencies.
Timbre Subtle craftsmanship leads to non-linear effects and
more detail.
Basic unit of music with specific names, combined to
Note
generate tunes
Tone Number and relative intensity of multiple frequencies.
Table: Sound Perceptions.
Hearing
• Hearing is the perception of sound. Sound waves
(longitudinal wave) consist of vibrating particles, which
knock into other particles causing those particles to vibrate
and knock into more particles and so on; this is how sound
waves travel away from their source. The vibrations enter our
ears, interact with our eardrums and are converted into nerve
signals that are sent to our brains.
How the ear works?
1) The outer ear (auricle/pinna) collects and directs sound waves into the auditory canal. At the
end of the auditory canal is the tympanic membrane (ear drum). The sound waves cause the
tympanic membrane to vibrate.
2) The middle ear consists of three tiny bones called the hammer, the anvil and the stirrup. When
the tympanic membrane vibrates, the bones in the middle ear vibrate as well. They reduce the
amplitude of vibration produced on the tympanic membrane (similar to a lever system) At the
same time, the vibrational pressure on the oval window is increased. The middle ear is
connected to back of the throat via the eustachian tube. Under normal conditions, the pressure
on both sides of the tympanic membrane is the same.
3) The inner ear is filled with liquid. It contains the cochlea, which is attached to auditory nerve
and inside the cochlea there are many tiny hairs that cover it entirely. These hairs vary in
length, thickness and stiffness. When the oval window vibrates, the liquid inside the inner ear
vibrates. This causes the tiny hairs to resonate. The hairs produce electrical signals which are
then transmitted via the auditory nerve to the brain, where they are then interpreted.
Frequency Response and Intensity
• The human ear is able to detect frequencies in the range 20Hz to 20kHz. This range is called the
frequency response of the ear. As a person gets older, the upper limit of 20kHz decreases. In the
frequency range 60Hz to 1kHz, the human ear can detect changes of 2Hz to 3Hz. At frequencies
above 1kHz, it is difficult for the human ear to detect small changes in frequencies.
• Intensity is the sound power per unit area (I = P/A) at a stated frequency. The smallest sound
intensity that can be detected by the human ear is called the threshold of hearing. The threshold of
hearing is at a frequency of 3kHz. The threshold of hearing varies with frequency.
• I = , at a stated frequency.
• I – intensity/
• P – power/
• A – area/
Variation of threshold of
hearing with frequency

 Above the curve

represents intensities
that can be detected
by the human ear.
 Intensities below the
curve cannot be
detected by the
human ear.
• The sensitivity of the human ear is the ability to detect the smallest
fractional change (ΔI) of intensity, I.
• Sensitivity depends on the ratio ΔI:I.
• Sensitivity increases with frequency to a maximum, and then decreases
with increasing frequency.
• The maximum sensitivity is at 1–3kHz. The human ear can detect a wide
range of intensities. The minimum intensity that can be detected is at a
frequency of 3kHz. The upper limit of the range is in the frequency range
1kHz to 6kHz. The upper limit is called the threshold of pain. Persons
exposed to intensities of can experience pain and temporary deafness.
• Frequency has a major effect on how loud a sound seems.
The ear has its maximum sensitivity to frequencies in the
range of 2000 to 5000 Hz, so that sounds in this range are
perceived as being louder than, say, those at 500 or 10,000
Hz, even when they all have the same intensity.
• Normal human hearing encompasses frequencies from 20 to
20,000 Hz, an impressive range.
• Sounds below 20 Hz are called infrasound.
• Sounds above 20,000 Hz are ultrasound. Neither is
perceived by the ear, although infrasound can sometimes be
felt as vibrations. 
The logarithmic response of the ear

• Equal changes in intensity are not perceived as equal changes

in loudness.
• Loudness is the subjective response of a person to a given
intensity. Intensity level may be used as a measure of
loudness.
• Intensity level is defined using the following equation.
Changes in loudness depend on the fractional change in
intensity (ΔI/I). Loudness is a logarithmic response to
intensity.
• I= intensity of sound incident on ear/
• = threshold of hearing
Loudness and Noise

• Intensity level is defined in terms of the intensity of sound

and the threshold of hearing at a frequency of 3kHz.
• Loudness is the subjective response of a person to a given
intensity and depends on the individual and the frequency of
the sound.
To define a consistent unit of loudness, a frequency of 1kHz is
chosen as a standard. The 1kHz standard source is adjusted
until it is perceived as being as loud as the source being
evaluated.
The Physics of Sight: Objectives
• Students should be able to:
Solve problems using lens formulae
Discuss how the eye forms images discuss how the eye forms focused images of
objects at different distances;
explain the terms:
(a) depth of focus;
(b) accommodation;
(c) long sight;
(d) short sight;
(e) astigmatism; and,
(f) cataracts;
discuss how defects of the eye can be corrected
discuss the formation of focused images in the simple camera and magnifying glass.
Recap
• The refractive index of a medium is the degree of bending
that a wave undergoes when it passes from one medium to
the next.
Lens: A lens is a curved, transparent object
that refracts light.
• A convex (converging) lens • A concave (diverging lens)
causes parallel beams of light lens causes parallel beams of
to converge to a point. light to diverge/spread out.
Lens Terminology
• When a parallel beam of light strikes the surface of a converging lens, refraction occurs and
the beam is focused through a point known as the focal point (principal focus), F of the lens.
• The optical center or pole, P of the lens is the point on a lens through which a ray of light
passes without deviation (represented as a straight vertical line passing through the lens).
• The horizontal line drawn through the optical center of the lens is known as the principal
axis.
• The distance, f between the optical center of the lens P and the focal point F is known as the
focal length of the lens.
• The focal plane is a plane that is perpendicular to the principal axis of a lens and passes
through the focal point.
• Paraxial rays are those that travel parallel to one another, make a small angle with the
principal axis and strike the lens near to this axis.
Difference between concave and convex lens
• When light rays pass through the point F of a convex lens, if
a screen is placed at the point F, an image will be seen. The
image produced in this case is called a real image.
• When a parallel beam of light strikes the surface of a concave
lens, refraction occurs and the rays spread out as they leave
the lens. The rays appear to have diverged from the point F. If
a screen is placed at the point F, an image will not be seen,
because the rays do not actually pass through the point F. The
image in this case is called a virtual image.
• The power of a lens is defined by the equation:
• (D)

• A more powerful lens will have a shorter focal length and

vice versa.
Converging lenses give positive power values.
Diverging lenses have negative power values.
• A more powerful lens will have a shorter focal length and
vice versa.
• An object is placed in front (to the left) of a converging lens.
The distance between the object and optical center of the lens
is the object distance u. To determine the position of the
image several rays are constructed. These rays form a ray
diagram.
Ray Diagrams
• Ray diagrams help us trace the path of the light for the
person to view a point on the image of an object. The Ray
diagram uses lines with arrows to represent the incident and
reflected ray. It also helps us trace the direction in which the
light travels.
Rules for constructing ray diagrams:

• A ray of light parallel to the principal axis (paraxial ray)

passes through the focal point of the lens.
• A ray of light passing through the optical center of the lens is
undeviated. Using these rules, an image can be constructed
on the right-hand side of the lens (the image is inverted and is
real). The distance between the image and the optical center
of the lens is the image distance v.
• The lens formula can be used for converging and diverging
lenses. A sign convention is used (real is positive).
• , where f is the focal length of the lens (m), u is the object
distance(m) and v is the image distance (m).
Quantity Positive sign (+) (real) Negative sign (-) (virtual)

1 Object distance, u Object is in front of lens Object is at the back of lens

2 Image distance, v Image is at the back of lens Image is in front of lens

3 Focal length, f Converging (convex) lens Diverging (concave) lens

• The focal length of a converging lens is positive.
• The focal length of a diverging lens is negative.
• Real object and real image distances are positive.
• Virtual object and virtual image distances are negative.
Simple camera

• The lens of the camera can move back and forth from the
photograph film. This allows for light from objects at
different distances to be focused on the film. The image
produced is real, diminished and inverted.
Magnification
• When an object is placed between the focal point and the
lens, a virtual, upright and enlarged image is produced. This
is the principle by which a magnifying glass works.
• Magnification can be calculated using the formula
, M is magnification, is image size (m), is object size (m).
The Human Eye
• The rays of light entering the eye must pass through several media (cornea, aqueous humour,
lens, vitreous humour) before reaching the retina. Each medium has a different refractive index.
• Light first strikes the air-cornea boundary. Most of the bending occurs at this boundary because
of the large difference between the refractive indices (refractive index of air =1.0, refractive
index of cornea = 1.38).
• The light then travels through the aqueous humour, then through the pupil towards the lens. The
main function of the lens is to fine tune the focusing of light so that an image is formed on the
retina.
• The retina consists of nerve endings that generate electrical impulses that are sent to the brain
via the optic nerve.
• The lens is suspended by ligaments which are attached to a circular ring of muscles called the
ciliary muscles. When the muscles are relaxed, the lens is long and thin. When the muscles
contract, the lens becomes short and fat (more powerful or shorter focal length).
Accommodation
• Accommodation is the ability of the eye to change the focal
length of the lens so as to focus images formed from objects
at different distances. The closest point to the eye at which
the eye can still produce a focused image on the retina is
25cm for a normal eye and is called the near point. The far
point of the normal eye is taken to be at infinity.
Depth of Field, Depth of Focus
• The depth of field and depth of focus of the eye are affected
by the size of the iris.
• The range of object distances for which an image remains 'in
focus' is called the depth of field.
• The variation of distance through which the eye can still
clearly see is called the depth of focus.
Short-sightedness (Myopia)
• The person is able to only focus objects close to the eye.
Distant objects are blurred. The image forms in front of the
retina. Short-sightedness occurs when the lens is not able to
relax in order to become long and thin (less powerful).
(Short-sightedness also occurs if the eyeball is too long.)
• A diverging lens is used to correct short-sightedness. In the
case of short-sightedness, the far point is closer than infinity
and the near point may be closer than 25cm.
Short-sightedness

Correction for short-sightedness

Long-sightedness (Hypermetropia)
• The person is able to only focus objects that are far from the
eye. Objects close to the eye are blurred. The image forms
behind the retina. Long-sightedness occurs because the
ciliary muscles become weak and the lens is not able to
become short and fat (more powerful).
(Long-sightedness also occurs if the eyeball is too short.)
• A converging lens is used to correct long sight. In the case of
long-sightedness, the far point is infinity and the near point is
greater than 25cm.
Long-sightedness

Correction for long-sightedness

Astigmatism
• The person has difficulty focusing light rays from objects in
different planes at the same time. The problem is caused
because the surface of the cornea is uneven.
• Astigmatism is corrected using a cylindrical lens, adjusted
such that its axis is perpendicular to the axis in which the eye
cornea-lens system is cylindrical.

Cylindrical lens
https://youtu.be/SaD9rAef-bI
Cataracts
• Persons with cataract have lenses which have become
opaque. Very little light enters the eye.
• In order to correct this defect, the lens of the eye is removed.
Surgeons can implant a new lens inside the eyes or glasses
with converging lenses are used to correct the defect.
Questions
• A person has an eardrum of area 53. When listening to music
using headphones, the headphone produces 0.14μW of sound
power to the eardrum.
• Calculate:
a) the intensity of the sound incident on the eardrum
b) the intensity level at the eardrum
• A lens has a power of +2.5D. An object is placed 20cm in
front of the lens. Determine:
a) the focal length of the lens and state what type of lens it is
b) the position and nature of the image produced