Introduction to Physiology

and Homeostasis
I. Introduction  Anatomy
 Anatomy and physiology  Investigates the structures of
affect your life everyday the body
 What they are made of
 Anatomy is the oldest medical
 Where they are located
science
 Associated structures
 1600 B.C.
 Physiology is the study of
 Physiology
function  Investigation of the processes or
 Biochemistry functions of living things
 Functions of anatomical
 Biology
structures
 Chemistry
 Individual and cooperative
 Genetics functions
• Anatomy – study of structure
• Physiology – study of function
Physiology
• the study of the functions of
living things.
• focus on how the human body
works.
Struktur selalu ber-korelasi
dengan Fungsi dan tak
terpisahkan
Physiology is an Integrative Science
 Fisiologi / Faal
• Physiology focuses on body
→ bagaimana tubuh bekerja, mekanisme kerja tubuh
functions.
dapat dijelaskan berdasarkan rangkaian sebab-akibat
proses kimia dan fisika
• Homeostasis, the relatively
stable conditions inside the body
- Pendekatan mekanistik → mekanisme kerja, needed for survival
“bagaimana” suatu kejadian dalam tubuh kita dapat
terjadi

- Pendekatan teleologis → fenomena yang terjadi dalam

tubuh dijelaskan berdasarkan tujuan tertentu untuk
memenuhi kebutuhan tubuh, tanpa mempertimbangkan
bagaimana hasil tersebut dicapai (“mengapa”)
• Terdapat dua pendekatan yang digunakan untuk menjelaskan kejadian yang berlangsung di tubuh :
• Menekankan tujuan suatu proses tubuh
• Menekankan mekanisme yang mendasari bagaimana proses ini terjadi
“Why do I shiver when I am cold?”
Levels of Organization
 The Chemical (or Molecular) Level  The Organ Level
 Atoms are the smallest chemical units  An organ is a group of different
 Atoms combine to form molecules tissues working together composed
 Molc. form organelles of at least 2 tissue types usu. 4
 The Cellular Level though
 Smallest functional unit of an organism
 All cells are similar in some ways  The Organ System Level
 Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and  Organ systems are a group of organs
organelles working together
working together to perform a
 The Tissue Level
 Tissues are a groups of similar cells working
certain function
together to produce a common function  Humans have 11 organ systems
 Four types:
 Epithelial tissue-covers the surface of the body and lines  The Organism Level
cavities
 Muscle tissue-provides movement  Comprised of all structural levels
 Connective tissue- connects tissues, supports and
protects body organs working together to keep us alive
 Nervous tissues-rapid communication throughout body
Chapter 1
Homeostasis: The
Foundation of
Physiology
Human Physiology by
Lauralee Sherwood
©2007 Brooks/Cole-
Thomson Learning
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 7

Atoms Molecule Organelle

Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level Cellular level

Atoms combine to Cells are made up
form molecules. of molecules. Smooth muscle tissue

Cardiovascular
system
Tissue level
Heart Tissues consist of
Blood similar types of cells.
vessels
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue

Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.

Organismal level Organ system level

The human organism is made Organ systems consist of different
up of many organ systems. organs that work together closely.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 1
Homeostas
is: The
Foundation
of
Physiology

Human
Physiology
by
Lauralee
Sherwood
©2007
Brooks/Col
e-Thomson
Learning
The six most important life processes of the human body:
1. Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body.
• One phase of metabolism is catabolism is a condition the breakdown of complex chemical
• Anabolism isthe building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components.
• For example, digestive processes catabolize (split) proteins in food into amino acids. These amino acids are then
used to anabolize (build) new proteins that make up body structures such as muscles and bones.

2. Responsiveness is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes.

• For example, an increase in body temperature during a fever represents a change in the internal environment (within the
body), and turning your head toward the sound of squealing brakes is a response to a change in the external
environment (outside the body) to prepare the body for a potential threat.
3. Movement includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells.
4. Growth is an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the
number of cells, or both.
5. Differentiation is the development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state. Differentiation, a single
fertilized human egg (ovum) develops into an embryo, and then into a fetus, an infant, a child, and finally an adult.
6. Reproduction refers either to the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement,or the production
of a new individual. In humans, the former process occurs continuously throughout life, which continues from one
generation to the next through the latter process, the fertilization of an ovum by a sperm cell
>Gambar 1-5 Komponen sistem tubuh
 Homeostasis
KEY CONCEPT
Homeostasis is the regulation and
maintenance of the internal environment of the
body

Claude Bernard (1880’s)

‘constancy of the internal environment’

Walter B. Cannon (1929)

Regulation of a ‘relatively constant internal environment’
• Homeostasis’ refers to the maintenance of constant internal
environment of the body (homeo = same; stasis = standing).
• Homeostasis is the condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment due to the
constant interaction of the body’s many regulatory processes.
• Homeostasis is a dynamic condition.
• In response to changing conditions, the body’s equilibrium can shift among points in a narrow range that is
compatible with maintaining life.
• For example :
• the level of glucose in blood normally stays between 70 and 110 milligrams of glucose per 100 milliliters of
blood
• Each structure, from the cellular level to the system level, contributes in some way to keeping the
internal environment of the body within normal limits
• Internal environment in the body is
the extracellular fluid (ECF) in
which the cells live.
• The internal environment is the
fluid that surrounds the cells and
through which they make life-
sustaining exchanges.
• It is the fluid outside the cell and it
constantly moves throughout the body.
It includes blood, which circulates in
the vascular system and fluid present
in between the cells called interstitial
fluid.
• ECF contains nutrients, ions and all
other substances necessary for the
survival of the cells.

• The external environment is the

surrounding environment in which an
organism lives.
 KONSEP HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis → kecenderungan untuk menstabilkan keadaan tubuh yang normal

(lingkungan internal) atau mempertahankan kondisi fisik dan kimia yang relatif konstan
dalam lingkungan internal organisme, menurut batas-batas fisiologis

Homeostasis sebagai keadaan stabil-dinamis dengan perubahan-perubahan yang terjadi

diperkecil oleh respons fisiologis kompensatorik

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a steady state in the body despite changes in the
external environment
The steady state is the optimum level for the body functions

• All body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment

• Systems respond to external and internal changes to function within a normal range (body
temperature, fluid balance)
 BODY SYSTEMS Body systems
maintain
homeostasis
NERVOUS ENDOCRINE
Information from SYSTEM Regulate SYSTEM
the external
environment relayed
through the
nervous system

O2 RESPIRATORY Keeps internal

INTEGUMENTARY fluids in HOMEOSTASIS
CO2 SYSTEM
SYSTEM
Keeps foreign
materials out
Urine containing
wastes and
URINARY
excess water and SYSTEM
electrolytes Protects
IMMUNE SYSTEM against Homeostasis
Nutrients, water, foreign
electrolytes DIGESTIVE invaders essential for
Feces containing SYSTEM cell survival
undigested food
residue
MUSCULAR AND Enables the
Sperm leave male REPRODUCTIVE SKELETAL body to
SYSTEM interact CELLS
Sperm enter SYSTEM with the
female
Exchanges with Exchanges with external
all other systems all other systems environment

EXTERNAL CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

ENVIRONMENT

Cells make
up body
system

Chapter 1 Homeostasis: The Foundation of Physiology

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
Homeostasis
Summary
Faktor-faktor internal yang harus dipertahankan secara homeostasis :
1. Konsentrasi molekul zat-zat gizi/ nutrient
2. Konsentrasi O2 dan CO2
3. Konsentrasi zat-zat sisa
4. pH
5. Konsentrasi air, garam-garam dan elektrolit-elektrolit
6. Suhu tubuh
7. Volume dan tekanan
8. Otot Skeletal
9. Sistem saraf pusat
10. Sistem saraf otonom
Homeostatically Regulated Factors
Many factors of the internal environment must be homeostatically maintained.They include the following:
1. Concentration of nutrients. Cells need a constant supply of nutrient molecules for energy production.
• Energy, in turn, is needed to support life-sustaining and specialized cell activities.
2. Concentration of O2 and CO2. Cells need O2 to carry out energy-yielding chemical reactions.
• The CO2 produced during these reactions must be removed so that acid-forming CO2 does not increase the acidity of the internal
environment.
3. Concentration of waste products.
• The end products of some chemical reactions have a toxic effect on body cells if these wastes are allowed to accumulate.
4. pH.
• Changes in the pH of the ECF adversely affect nerve cell function and the enzyme activity of all cells.
5. Concentrations of water, salt, and other electrolytes.
• the relative concentrations of salt (NaCl) and water in the ECF influence how much water enters or leaves the cells, these
concentrations are carefully regulated to maintain the proper volume of the cells

6. Volume and pressure.

• The circulating component of the internal environment, the plasma, must be maintained at adequate volume and blood pressure to
ensure bodywide distribution of this important link between the external environment and the cells.

7. Temperature.
• Body cells function best within a narrow temperature range. If cells are too cold, their functions slow down too much; if they get
too hot, their structural and enzymatic proteins are impaired or destroyed.
8. Skeletal muscles are also involved in homeostasis. This system helps the
organism to move around in search of food. It also helps to protect the
organism from adverse surroundings, thus preventing damage or
destruction.
9. Central nervous system, which includes brain and spinal cord also, plays
an important role in homeostasis. Sensory system detects the state of the
body or surroundings. Brain integrates and interprets the pros and cons
of these information and commands the body to act accordingly
throughmotor system so that, the body can avoid the damage.
10. Autonomic nervous system regulates all the vegetative functions of the
body essential for homeostasi
 Normal Ranges for Some Blood Values

Arterial pH 7.35-7.45
Bicarbonate 24-28 mEq/L
Sodium 135-145 mEq/L
Calcium 4.5-5.5 mEq/L
Oxygen content 17.2-22 ml/100ml
Urea 12-35 mg/100 ml
Amino acids 3.3-5.1 mg/100ml
Protein 6.5-8 g/100ml
Total lipids 400-800 mg/100ml
Glucose 75-110 mg/100ml
 Mass Balance in the Body
• Homeostasis requires that amounts
gained must be equal to that lost.
• Ion concentration- need proper
amounts of Na+, Cl-, K+, and Ca2+:
• nervous, cardiac& muscle function-
imbalances cause problems with
membranes of cells that are excitable.
• Primarily replaced with thirst &
appetite and excreted in urine, sweat,
& feces
• pH balance- cells functions within a pH
range that is maintained by H+, CO2, &
HCO3–
• Fluid- water levels need to be
maintained, ingestion and urine
formation have largest impact.
 FLUID COMPARTMENTS

EXTRA CELLUAR Fluid INTRA CELLULAR (cytocol)

FLUID

PLASMA INTERSTITIAL TRANSCELLULAR

FLUID FLUID

1. CSF
2. Intra ocular
3. Pleural
4. Peritoneal
5. Synovial
6. Digestive Secretions
Physiological control systems keep regulated variables
within a desired range during homeostasis
• A homeostatic control system is a
functionally interconnected network of
body components that operates to
maintain a given factor in the internal
environment at a relatively constant
optimal level.
• To maintain homeostasis, the control
system must be able to :
1.detect deviations from normal in the
internal environmental factor that
needs to be held within narrow
limits
2. integrate this information with any
other relevant information
3. make appropriate adjustments in
the activity of the body parts
responsible for restoring this factor
to its desired value
• Homeostasis is an important characteristic of living things.
• Maintaining a stable internal environment which requires
adjustments as conditions change inside and outside the
cell.
• The maintenance of systems within a cell is called
homeostatic regulation.
• The continuous adjustments are made to meet the Set
Point.
• Homeostasis is regulated by 3 different mechanisms and
they are:
• a) Osmoregulation
• b) Thermoregulation
• c) Chemical Regulation.
• These mechanisms are performed in the body by
various systems of the body like Respiratory
system, Endocrine system, Reproductive system,
Urinary System, Nervous system

• Mechanisms of Regulation
Homeostatis
• Autoregulation (intrinsic)
• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or
organ to some environmental change
• Extrinsic regulation
• Responses controlled by nervous and
endocrine systems
• Homeostatic control systems can be grouped into two
classes—intrinsic and extrinsic controls.
• Intrinsic, or local, controls are built into or are
inherent in an organ (intrinsic means “within”). For
example, as an exercising skeletal muscle rapidly uses
up O2 to generate energy to support its contractile
activity, the O2 concentration within the muscle falls.
• This local chemical change acts directly on the smooth muscle
in the walls of the blood vessels supplying the exercising
muscle, causing the smooth muscle to relax so that the vessels
dilate, or open widely.
• As a result, increased blood flows through the dilated vessels
into the exercising muscle, bringing in more O2.
• This local mechanism helps maintain an optimal level of O2 in
the fluid immediately around the exercising muscle’s cells.
• Most factors in the internal environment are
maintained,by extrinsic, or systemic, controls,
which are regulatory mechanisms initiated outside an
organ to alter the organ’s activity (extrinsic means
“outside of ”). Extrinsic control of the organs and body
systems is accomplished by the nervous and
endocrine systems,
 Stimulus- something in the
environment that causes a
change (can be internal)
 Response – action of organism
as a result of stimulus
The feedback regulations are of 2
types:
1. Positive feedback regulation.
2. Negative feedback regulation.

 Feedback mechanisms/loops –
processes by which the body
maintains levels
– Usually uses nervous and
hormonal cues to conduct
processes
 KOMPONEN HOMEOSTATIS
Komponen MekanismeHomeostatik :
a. Variable, karakteristik dari lingkungan • Sensor: menerima respon
internal yang dikontrol oleh mekanisme
(co., suhu tubuh) • Integrating center: menentukan aksi
b. Set point, nilai fisiologis normal dari terhadap respon
masing-masing variabel tubuh
• Effector: menjalankan respon hingga
c. Reseptor keadaan kembali ke titik normal
d. Pusat Pengendali / Integrator
e. Efektor
 Steps in a Homeostatic process
 When a stimulus occurs, each
of these steps must occur in
order for a response to be
initiated
 1) receptor must recognize
stimulus
– Must be enough of a stimulus to
surpass nervous threshold
Sensory Neuron
 2)sensory neuron must
transmit message from the
receptor, to a control center
– Neuron = nerve cell
– Most receptors are bundled
together on individual neurons
by region
 Control center
 3)message is carried to a
control center (usually in
brain), where the message is
interpreted, and the correct
response is coordinated.
– In the case of a reflex action,
spinal chord is C.C.
Motor neuron
 4)Carries message from
control center to effector
organ dictating response
 Effector organ
 5)Receives message and
conducts actual response
 Afferent vs. Efferent pathway
 Efferent pathway
Afferent
 Includes motor
receptor
neuron
and sensory
(efferent
neuron
neuron)
(aka
and
afferent
effector
neuron)
organ
Silverthorn, Human Physiology An Integrated
Approach, 4th ed
Homeostatic Feedback Loops
Deviation from the set point. This
Stimulus error is measured by the sensor
Receptor that senses change in
Sensor
stimulus
Integrator Compares signal coming in to “set
point” —usually a part of the brain
Effector
Usually an organ or tissue

Response Change that occurs

Result Result due to change

Antagonistic homeostatic control of heart rate
Tonic control of blood vessel diameter
Extrinsic Homeostatic Control Systems

• Feedforward
• Term used for responses made in anticipation of a change
• Feedback
• Refers to responses made after change has been detected
• Types of feedback systems
• Negative
• Positive

Chapter 1 Homeostasis: The Foundation of Physiology

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
 MEKANISME HOMEOSTATIS EKSTRINSIK

1. Negative Feedback Loops (NFL)

• Menjaga homeostasis dengan melihat deviasi (simpangan) perubahan
dari titik normal dan mengembalikan kembali ke titik normal tersebut.
2. Positive feedback loops
• Meneruskan perubahan yang meningkat (+)
• Controlled variable bergerak pada arah yang sama
Contoh: Kontraksi uterin saat melahirkan

3. Feed forward mechanisms

• Antisipasi perubahan dan respon sebelum perubahan terjadi
Contoh: menggigil sebelum berenang di air dingin
• Feed Forward :
• respond in anticipation of a change in a
regulated variable.
• For example, when a meal is still in the
digestive tract, a feedforward mechanism
increases
secretion of a hormone (insulin) that promotes
the cellular uptake and storage of ingested
nutrients
after they have been absorbed from the
digestive tract. This anticipatory response helps
limit the rise
in blood nutrient concentration after nutrients
have been absorbed.
• Negative feedback system
• Primary type of homeostatic control
• Opposes initial change
• Components
• Sensor
• Monitors magnitude of a controlled variable
• Control center
• Compares sensor’s input with a set point
• Effector
• Makes a response to produce a desired effect
• Negative feedback occurs when a change in a regulated
variable triggers a response which reverses the initial
change and brings the regulated variable back to the set
point.

Chapter 1 Homeostasis: The Foundation of

Physiology
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2007
Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Silverthorn, Human Physiology An Integrated Approach, 4th ed

When body temperature drops, the hypothalamus initiates several physiological responses to increase heat production and
conserve heat:
•Narrowing of surface blood vessels (vasoconstriction) decreases the flow of heat to the skin.
•Shivering commences, increasing production of heat by the muscles.
•Adrenal glands secrete stimulatory hormones such as norepinephrine and epinephrine to increase metabolic rates and hence
heat production.
These effects cause body temperature to increase. When it returns to normal, the hypothalamus is no longer stimulated, and
these effects cease.
Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature

RECEPTORS
Temperature Information
sensors in skin affects
Normal and
temperature hypothalamus CONTROL
disturbed CENTER
STIMULUS:
Body temperature
rises

HOMEOSTASIS Thermoregulatory
Normal body center in brain Vessels Vessels
temperature dilate, constrict,
RESPONSE: sweating sweating
Increased heat loss, increases decreases
body temperature
drops

Body temperature (°C)

Normal EFFECTORS 37.2
Sends Normal
temperature • Sweat glands
37 range
commands 36.7
restored in skin increase
to
secretion
• Blood vessels
in skin dilate
Time
Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are The thermoregulatory center keeps
comparable to those shown in Figure 12. A control center body temperature fluctuating
in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat within an acceptable range, usually
with a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds between 36.7 and 37.2°C.
37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow
to the skin and increased sweating.

56
 Homeostatic Regulation of Body Temperature through Negative
Feedback

Hyperthermia Heat receptors in Hypothalamus

the skin
Stress
Sensors Control Center

Stress is reduced
shutting down
mechanism
Increased activity
of sweat glands
Perspiration
evaporates cooling
the skin Increased blood
flow to the skin
Effect
Effectors
Negative feedback in human thermoregulation.

58
Negative feedback in
human dehydration
Homeostasis: Negative Feedback

Example: kontrol tekanan darah Set point: tekanan darah normal

Sensor: baroreceptor Integration Center: Otak
Effector: jantung / arteri
Homeostasis: Negative Feedback

Example: gula darahSet point: 5 mmol/L

Sensor: sel pancreas Intergrating center: Endocrine system
Effector: insulin and glucagon
Silverthorn, Human Physiology An
Integrated Approach, 4th ed
Positive
feedback
 Homeostatic Regulation of Child Birth through Positive
Feedback
Nerve endings in the uterine wall
Pressure of Fetus on the
carry afferent messages to the
Uterine Wall
Hypothalamus

Intensifies

Production and Release of

Increasing strength of Oxytocin into the Blood
uterine contractions

The birth of the child will bring this process to a close. Other examples of
positive feedback regulation occur during milk letdown and blood clotting.
• Positive Feedback can be explained by
an example.
• When you have a cut on your finger,
positive feedback contributes to the
rapid formation of a platelet plug in an
injured blood vessel.
• The injured area attracts platelets, and
each of these platelets secretes
chemicals that attract more platelets
• Thus, many platelets accumulate
quickly and together these platelets
plug the hole in the injured blood
vessel and prevent excessive blood loss
The biological clock is an innate timing device present in all organisms. It consists of specific
molecules that interact with the cells of the body. Every tissue and organ has a biological clock.
Biological clocks keep body processes running according to a schedule. Therefore, they are
really important for the functioning of life and to the organization and coordination of behavior.

Human circadian rhythm (Source adapted from Smolensky and Lamberg 2001)
Circadian Physiology
Circadian Rhythms
• endogenous cycles
• role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus
• setting/resetting biological clocks

Examples:
-activity
-temperature
-waking and sleeping
-secretion of hormones
-eating and drinking

Circadian rhythms are physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hour cycle. These natural
processes respond primarily to light and dark and affect most living things, including animals, plants, and
microbes.
Chronobiology is the study of circadian rhythms. One example of a light-related circadian rhythm is sleeping
at night and being awake during the day.
The Average Teen Circadian Cycle image shows the circadian rhythm cycle of a typical teen.
 Body Rhythms

• Circadian rhythms:
(circa = approx and diem = day) go over 24hrs. Humans demonstrate a series of changes
including temperature heart respiration and metabolism over this period. We (psychologists)
are most interested in the sleep-wake cycle.

• Ultradian rhythms:
(Meaning less than one day) Sleep is a good example of an ultradian rhythm, as you sleep you
pass through differing stages of sleep (e.g. light and deep sleep lasting about 90 minutes.)
• Infradian rhythm: (meaning more than 1 day). An example of a infradian rhythm would be a woman's
menstrual cycle which lasts for 28 days.

• A circannial cycle occurs yearly/annually. An example of this would be non human, animals
hibernation and waking patterns.
 Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

SCN - main control center for sleep and

temperature circadian rhythms
The Consequences of Disrupting Biological
Rhythms.
• When external cues change we have to re-adjust our internal
clock…….

• JET LAG SHIFT WORK.