MITOSIS Ms.

J Chong
Objectives

• Understand and know what is DNA and its structure.

• Describe how the process of mitosis produces two new, identical
daughter as the parent cell.
• Understand the importance of mitosis in growth, regeneration and
reproduction in some organisms.
 Mitosis and Meiosis
There are two ways cell division can happen in humans and most other animals,
these two ways are known as mitosis and meiosis.
When a cell divides by way of mitosis, it produces two clones of itself, each with
the same number of chromosomes.
When a cell divides by way of meiosis, it produces four cells, called gametes
germ cell or sex cells.
Mitosis and Meiosis

Gametes are more commonly called sperm in males

and eggs in females. Unlike in mitosis, the gametes produced
by meiosis are not clones of the original cell, because each
gamete has exactly half as many chromosomes as the original
cell.
However, for now, we will focus on understanding the
process of mitosis.
 Mitosis
• We can thereby define mitosis as the process in which a cell nucleus divides to
produce two daughter nuclei, each containing the same/identical chromosomes
as the parent cell.

• Mitosis is then followed by division of the whole cell which gives rise to two
new, identical daughter cells. This process is known as cytokinesis. We’ll look at
this in greater detail soon.

• We can say mitosis is just one part of the cell cycle.

• However, what is the cell cycle?
The cell cycle

The cell cycle refers to the sequence of events which occur between one cell division and
the next. In fact, the cell cycle is characterized by three (3) processes or stages.
These three (3) processes or stages of the cell cycle include:
1. Interphase (lasts approximately 24hrs)
2. Mitosis
3. Cell Division

Mitosis and cell division lasts approximately 1 hour.

 Mitosis
• Before mitosis occurs, the chromosomes are replicated which means each
chromosome will have an exact copy of itself. This ensures that each
daughter cell has the same number and type of chromosome as their parent
cell.

• Therefore, before we go any further into mitosis, it is important that we

understand what chromosomes are
Chromosomes
The chromosome
• The chromosomes are the most important structures during
cell division as they are responsible for transferring genetic
information from one generation to the next.
• This is because chromosomes contain DNA.
• DNA is very long and so it is organized on protein called
histones to prevent it from getting tangled, thereby making
cell replication and division easier.

• You can actually think of a chromosome as one very long

strand of DNA, with a bunch of proteins called histones
stuck to it like beads on a string.
• In other words, we can think of the chromosome as a
complex of DNA and protein molecules called histones.
The chromosome
• Before cell division even takes place, that is,
the period between divisions (interphase), the
chromosomes are loosely coiled, long, thin
threads that are spread throughout the nucleus.
• This loosely coiled, thin, thread like structure
is known as chromatin (meaning coloured
material).
• Please remember chromatins are still
chromosomes, but just the thin, thread-like
version.
The chromosome
• Just before the nucleus divides, the chromatin become
condensed, that is they coil up into more compact
structures that are shorter and thicker. We refer to the
condensed version of chromatin as chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are more visible during microscopy as
they are thicker and also because they stain intensely
with dye.
• Chromosomes then replicate where it now contains
two (2) chromatids joined together by a centromere.
• That is, the two parts of a chromosome are referred to
as chromatids.
The chromosome
Chromatin vs Chromatid vs Chromosome
 Mitosis
• The basic structure of chromosomes (made of chromatin, long but scrunched up) is the same in all animals.

• The difference is that each species has its own set number of chromosomes. For instance, all human cells (except
gametes) have 46 chromosomes.
• Cells of nematodes (worms), other than gametes, have 4 chromosomes.

• The number of total chromosomes in the non-gamete or somatic cells (body cells) of a particular species is called
the diploid number for that species. We normally represent it by writing 2n as it means that we have 2 sets of each
chromosome.
• The diploid number of humans is 46. This also means that humans have:
2n = 2 (23) chromosomes where the total is 46. That is, we have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
It is important to know that all somatic cells (body cells) of an organism have the same chromosomes but different
genes are expressed or turned on depending on the biological function of the cell.
 Mitosis
• It also means ‘n’ which is 23 is the haploid number for humans. This is the number of
chromosomes present in human germ or reproductive cell.
• This means the total number of chromosomes in the gametes of a particular species is referred to
as the haploid number of that species. This number is always half of the diploid number.

• We’ll look at how haploid cells are formed next time in meiosis.

• Things to know: Some organisms including plants have three or more sets of chromosomes. We
refer to these as polyploid.

• Now, let’s get back to mitosis.

 Mitosis
As we already know, humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. We can arrange
these 23 pairs as shown in the picture below. This picture is known as a
karyogram and the set of chromosomes are called the karyotype.
• These 23 pairs are referred to as
homologous pairs.
• Homologous chromosomes are
similar in structure and may even
contain genes for the same
characteristics..

• Groups A-G are referred to as non-sex

chromosomes or autosomes.
• Therefore, humans have 22 pairs of
autosomes and 1 pair of sex
chromosomes.
 Mitosis
Why do we have two (2) pairs of chromosomes?
• The truth is each pair of chromosomes come from a parent; that is one set comes from the female parent and
one set comes from the male parent.
• In other terms, a combination of two (2) haploid cells (reproductive cells) give us a diploid cell. This happens
in cell reproduction where two gametes fuse to give us a zygote by fertilisation.

• If we look back at the karyogram, we will realise that the sex chromosomes are an odd pair as they are of
different lengths.
• The X chromosome is the female chromosome. It is longer and contains more genes than the Y chromosome.
• The Y chromosome is the male chromosome and is much shorter. It also lacks some of the genes found on the
female chromosome.

XX= FEMALE XY= MALE

 The cell cycle
Important information to note before we get back to the cell cycle:
• In the replication of animal cells, each cell has an organelle called a centrosome.
• The centrosome is located in the cytoplasm and is attached to the nuclear envelope.

The microtubule-organizing centre.

• A centrosome consist of a pair of centrioles oriented at right angles to each other.
• Centrioles are positioned at cell regions that initiate the formation of microtubules.
• Therefore, centrosomes are also called the MTOC (microtubule-organizing centres).
• The MTOC produces spindle fibres which help to guide chromosomes to opposite
poles of the cell during mitosis.
 The cell cycle
• The centrosome (a pair of centrioles)
 Important things to note…
• A chromosome always consist of two chromatids as chromatin replicates
before it even condenses to form a chromosome.
 Mitosis
• Back to the cell cycle.

The three (3) processes or stages of the cell cycle include:

1. Interphase (period of growth and replication)
2. Mitosis (the process by which the nucleus divides)
3. Cell Division (when the entire cell structure divides, that is the cytoplasm divides
into two daughter cells)

As seen above, mitosis is immediately followed by cell division or cytokinesis.

 Mitosis
• The cell cycle.
The cell cycle
 Mitosis
Interphase (period of growth and DNA
replication between cell divisions)
• The cell grows and prepares for cell division
• In the beginning of interphase, chromatin are present
and dispersed throughout the cell. The nuclear
envelope and nucleolus are also visible The
chromosomes become shorter and fatter (more easily
seen with the light microscope).
• As interphase progresses and the cell moves towards
mitosis, the DNA strand of a chromosome is copied
(the DNA strand is replicated) and this copied strand
is attached to the original strand at a spot called
the centromere.
 Mitosis
Interphase
Interphase
Centrosome also duplicates and
moves to opposite poles.

• Please note that plant cells do not have

centrioles like animal cell.
 Mitosis
• Mitosis: Prophase  Metaphase  Anaphase  Telophase.
• Four phases (PMAT)
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
Mitosis

• The first step of mitosis is Prophase.

 Mitosis
Prophase
• The longest phase of division.
• In prophase, the chromosomes are coiled and condensed
• The mitotic spindle forms
• The nucleolus shrinks and disappears
• The nuclear envelope dissolves or breaks down (disintegrates)
• The chromosomes are now visible as they are coiled and condensed.
• Each chromosome consist of two (2) chromatids joined by the centromere (2 chromatids
identical in structure and genetic information). The centromere is the region that becomes
associated with microtubules of the spindle.
Mitosis
 Mitosis
Metaphase
• Chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell. This means all
chromosomes are now located on equatorial plane.
• Spindles attach to centromeres
 Mitosis
Anaphase
• Shortest phase of mitosis
• Sister chromatids separate
• Centromeres divide
• Sister chromatids move to opposite poles using the spindle as a roadway
or guide.
 Mitosis
Anaphase

Each sister chromatid is a

daughter chromosome that will
be in the daughter nucleus.
 Mitosis
Telophase
• The cell enters telophase when all the daughter chromosomes have
reached their opposite poles.
• Spindle fibers and microtubule start to break down and disappear

• Chromosomes uncoil • now chromatin

• Nuclear membranes and nucleoli start to reform
 Mitosis

Telophase
Cytokinesis or cell division

Is the physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm

of a parental cell into two daughter cells.
• Occurs at end of Mitosis
• division of the cytoplasm to form 2 new daughter cells
• organelles are divided
• Daughter cells are genetically identical
 Cytokinesis or cell division
• Animal cells divide their cytoplasm by furrowing or indenting their cell
membrane.
• Since plant cells have cell wall outside the cell membrane which are
rigid, this cell wall must be replaced at cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis or cell division
Past paper questions

• Outline the main features of

mitosis. (4 marks)
Past paper questions

• Describe the difference

between genes and
chromosomes
 Why is mitosis important? (mitosis only happens in
eukaryotes)
 Growth and repair- All cells have a limited life span which consequently means that
they must be replaced through growth and repair. Hence, mitosis is important for
growth, repair and replacement of worn out cells.
 Genetic stability- Mitosis is a continuous process in multi-cellular organisms and it is
important for maintaining genetic stability as it produces two identical daughter cells
to the parent cell. Each time mitosis occurs, the cell must therefore ensure that there is
an accurate distribution of chromosomes from the parent cell to the daughter cell.
Of course, mitosis is important for maintaining species’ chromosome number.
Because DNA is very long, it can easily get tangled. It also means that DNA would be
difficult to copy and separate.
Therefore, DNA is organized and condensed into structures we know as
chromosomes which help mitosis to be easily accomplished.
 Why is mitosis important?
 Asexual reproduction- Mitosis is important for those organisms that cannot reproduce
sexually. Asexual reproduction only involves one parent and that one parent is able to
divide by mitosis to produce two identical daughter cells. This would therefore mean that
the daughter cells will also have identical behavioural and physical characteristics unless
there is some form of variation caused by the environment.
Examples of asexual reproduction include:
 Binary fission
 Vegetative propagation
 Cloning
 Binary fission
• Binary fission is the process by which unicellular organisms (eg: bacteria, amoeba) carry
out cell division to produce two (2) new organisms. Binary fission is similar in concept to
the mitosis that happens in eukaryotic organisms (such as plants and animals), but its
purpose is different.
• When cells divide by mitosis in the body of a multicellular organism, they cause the
organism to grow larger or replace old, worn-out cells with new ones. In the case of a
bacterium, however, cell division isn’t just a means of making more cells for the body.
Instead, it’s actually how bacteria reproduce, or add more bacteria to the population.
• Binary fission has features in common with mitosis, but also differs from mitosis in some
important ways. Let's take a look at how it works.
• In amoeba, the chromosomes replicate first, then the nucleus divides into two after which
the cytoplasm follows.
Binary fission
 Image showing a runner
Vegetative propagation
• This is a common form of asexual reproduction
in plants. In some plants, buds may grow into a
new plant after which it becomes separated
from the parent. Bulbs, rhizomes, tubers,
corms, runner, stolons, tillers and tap roots can
all reproduce asexually.
Different forms of vegetative propagation:
Runners- these are stems that grow horizontally
above the ground. They have nodes where buds are
formed. These buds grow into a new plant.
Stolons are simply underground runners. This
means these stems grow underground leading to
new underground buds and eventually new plants.
 Vegetative propagation
More forms of vegetative propagation:
Bulbs- A bulb contains an underground stem. Leaves
are attached to the stem. These leaves contain much
stored food. At the center of the bulb is an apical bud. Image showing a bulb
Also attached are lateral buds. The apical bud will
produce leaves and a flower while the lateral buds
will produce new shoots. As the plant grows and
develops it will form a new bulb underground. E.g.:
onion.
Leaves- Leaves of some plants will grow into a new
plant if they become detached from the parent plant.
Other plants grow small plants called plantlets on the
edge of their leaves Eg: Bryophyllum leaves.
Tubers- New plants will grow out of swollen,
modified roots called tubers. Buds develop at the base
of the stem and then grow into new plants.
 Artificial Vegetative Reproduction

Artificial Vegetative Reproduction Image showing new plant formed from cuttings.
Horticulturists and farmers use artificial
means to produce plants that are identical to the
parent plant. Some of the methods used are:

• Cuttings
Cuttings are part of the plant that is cut off
of the parent plant. Shoots with leaves attached
are usually used. New roots and leaves will
grow from the cutting. The shoot is cut at an
angle. A growth promoter may be used to help
with the growth of the roots.
Image showing the nodes and
internodes of a plant.
 Artificial Vegetative Reproduction
Artificial Vegetative Reproduction (cont’d):
Grafting
• In grafting, 2 plants are used to develop a new plant with • Image showing grafting.
combined traits from the 2 parent plants.
• In grafting, a cutting called the scion is inserted into the slit
of the stem of another plant called the stock. The joint is
then bounded up. The stock plant provides the root system
for the scion allowing the scion to grow into a new plant.
• In other words, grafting involves joining a stem piece (as in
grafting) or a single bud (as in budding) onto the stem of a
plant that has roots. The stem piece or bud is called the
scion, and the plant with roots is called the rootstock.
Grafting is commonly used to produce fruit trees
sometimes with more than one variety of the same fruit
species growing from the same stem.
 Artificial Vegetative Reproduction
Artificial Vegetative Reproduction
(cont’d): • Image showing tissue culture.
• Tissue Culture
Using tissue culture, tiny fragments of
plants are treated with plant hormones in
a sterile growing medium. The hormones
stimulate the growth of a callus(new
plant cells formed from plant wounds),
from which a new seedling can grow.
This method is used to produce large
numbers of identical seedlings
• Read more about vegetative propagation at the link below:
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1662-vegetative-plant-
propagation
Cloning-2018
Cloning
Cloning is a form of asexual
reproduction.
Scientists have now learnt how to
separate the first four (4) cells of a
zygote to produce clones of different
organisms.
A clone is an exact copy of an
organism.
This is actually practiced in the
livestock industry where scientists
clone those livestock that possess
favourable traits.
In animals, clones are really identical
twins. Identical twins are generally
formed when a fertilised egg called a
zygote divides and separate into two
(2) distinct cells. These two cells lead
to two (2) different organism.
After the cells have been separated,
they are then placed in a mother who
acts as a surrogate to provide the
conditions to develop a growing
embryo. This is just one way of
cloning.
Cloning

• Another way of cloning is simply

to take the nucleus of a
somatic/body cell from an
individual with the desired traits
and place it into an unfertilized
ovum.
• The cell is then made to divide as
if it was fertilised after which it is
then placed in the womb of a
surrogate mother.
• The first animal successfully
cloned was a sheep that was
named Dolly.
Cloning- The famous Dolly
 Past paper Questions

1. Asexual reproduction is common in many flowering plants.

(i) Explain TWO ways in which humans make use of the plants' ability
to reproduce asexually.
(ii) Give TWO advantages to humans of asexual reproduction in plants.
(6 marks)
2. New shoots can grow from the buds or eyes’ of a potato tuber.
Explain TWO ways in which this method of reproduction is different
from reproduction in humans. (4 marks)
MEIOSIS
Ms. J Chong
MEIOTIC
CELL
DIVISION
  The number of total chromosomes in the non-gamete or somatic cells
(body cells) of a particular species is called the diploid number for that
species. We normally represent it by writing 2n as it means that we have 2
sets of each chromosome.
 The diploid number of humans is 46. This also means that humans have:
 2n = 2 (23) chromosomes where the total is 46. That is, we have 23
pairs of chromosomes.

RECAP!!
 We have 2n as 1 chromosome comes from the male parent and the other
comes from the female parent.
 It also means ‘n’ which is 23 is the haploid number for humans. This is the
number of chromosomes present in human germ or reproductive cell.
 This means the total number of chromosomes in the gametes of a
particular species is referred to as the haploid number of that species.
This number is always half of the diploid number.
 • Gametes are haploid cells. In humans, we know these
gametes as the egg (female gamete) and the sperm
(male gamete).
• These fuse together to form a zygote by a process we
RECAP!!! know as fertilization. Hence, a zygote is a fertilised egg.
• Hence; 1n + 1n= 2n
• The two chromosomes (one from the male parent and
the other from the female) are referred to as
homologous chromosomes.
 MEIOSIS

• Meiosis is the cell division which occurs only in during gamete production.
reproductive organs
• Meiosis results in the formation of four genetically unidentical cells.

• Each of these cells contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell (the
haploid or n number).
• Hence, meiosis is really the process in which two nuclear divisions reduce the
number of chromosomes to the haploid number. The nucleus divides twice and the
DNA replicates only ONCE.
So we already know what meiosis is already
Meiosis (meio, “ reduce) is a form of nuclear
division in which the chromosome number is
halved from the diploid (2n) to the haploid
number (n).
Like mitosis, it involves DNA replication
during interphase in the parent cell, but this is
followed by two cycles of nuclear divisions
and cell divisions, known as meiosis I (the
first meiotic division) and meiosis II (the
second meiotic division).
 Meiosis

• Meiosis ensures that:

Each daughter cell has a different combination of genes which leads to variation
amongst offspring.
Each daughter cell has the haploid number of chromosomes so that the diploid
number (and no more) can be restored within the zygote at fertilization.

• Please remember that gametes must be different from regular body cells in that they
have half the chromosome number (haploid or n) so that when the mother and father
gametes meet, they produce a zygote with the correct diploid number (2n) of a
normal body cell.
• Thus a single diploid cell gives rise to four haploid cells.

• Meiosis occurs during the formation of sperms and eggs (gametogenesis) in animals and
during spore formation in some plants.

• Like mitosis, meiosis is a continuous process but is conveniently divided into two
prophase, two metaphase, two anaphase and two telophase.

• These stages occur in the first meiotic division and again in the second meiotic division.
CHROMOSOMES AND
MEIOSIS
HOMOLOGOUS
CHROMOSOMES
Remember:
• Homologous chromosomes are basically two similar
chromosomes inherited from father and
mother. They are homologous because they have the
same gene, but different alleles.
• Homologous chromosomes pair up to form
bivalents, also known as a tetrad.
MEIOSIS
 The longest phase.

Homologous chromosomes pair up

PROPHASE I in a process called synapsis.

One of the pair comes from the

father and the other from the
mother.
PROPHASE I
PROPHASE I
 CHIASMATA FORMATION or crossing over

• Homologous chromosomes pair up and so a tetrad or bivalent is now formed.

• Chromatids now visible. They may cross over.

• Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) is an exchange of genetic material

between homologous chromosomes. Crossover usually occurs when matching regions on
matching chromosomes break and then reconnect to the other chromosome.

• Chromosomes are joined at several places along their length (chiasmata).

• Each chiasma (singular) is the site of an exchange between chromatids. Chiasmata (plural)
are X-shaped portions formed between adjacent chromosomes.
 Chiasmata formation

• It is produced by the breakage and reunion between any two of the four strands
present at each site.
• In fact, each chromosome in a homologous pair is referred to as a homolog
which means we can think of the chiasmata as an exchange of materials between
chromatids of different homologs.
• As a result, genes from one chromosome may swap with genes from the
other chromosome leading to new gene combinations in the resulting
chromatids.
• This is called crossing over.
Chiasmata formation
 METAPHASE I
• At metaphase 1, the chromosomes are connected to
the microtubules and chromosomes migrate and meet
at the equatorial plane (they line up).
• The chromosomes are still held together by
chiasma.
ANAPHASE I

• Homologous chromosomes
separate. That is, the bivalents
separate and move away from
each other.
• Centromeres do not split!!!!
TELOPHASE I

• The chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of the

cell.
• A nuclear membrane forms around each group.
• Spindle fibres break down.
• For some organisms including humans,
cytokinesis normally follows telophase. That is,
the parent cell divides into two daughter cells.
INTERPHASE II or Interkinesis

This stage is present

usually only in animal No further DNA
cells and varies in replication occurs.
length.
 • The centrioles begin to form new spindles at right angles to
PROPHASE II the first one.
METAPHASE II The chromosomes line up on
the equator of the spindles.
ANAPHASE II

• The centromeres of each

chromosomes of each chromosomes
split and causes the two chromatids
to separate.
• Chromosomes move away from each
other along the spindle fibers.
TELOPHASE II

• Chromatids arrive at opposite ends or poles.

• Nuclear membrane reforms around
chromosomes

• Cytoplasm divides in cytokinesis

• Four (4) daughter cells formed, each with
half the number of chromosomes as the
parent.
MEIOSIS IN SUMMARY
Recall:
MITOSIS
SUMMARY
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
MITOSIS AND
MEOSIS
Metaphase I vs Metaphase II
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

Genetic variation (allows

offspring to inherit a
Sexual reproduction mixture of genes from both
parents when gametes are
fertilised).
 COMPARISON OF
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

Mitosis is necessary for: Meiosis is necessary for:

• Growth of cells • The production of male and female
• Repair of cells gametes for sexual reproduction.

• Asexual reproduction • These are the egg and sperm cells.

• (Involves only one division of • (Involves two divisions of genetic

genetic material). material).