The Muscular

System (a)
The Muscular System
• Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement
• Three basic muscle types are found in the body
• Skeletal muscle
• Cardiac muscle
• Smooth muscle
Characteristics of Muscles
• Muscle cells are elongated
(muscle cell = muscle fiber)
• Contraction of muscles is due to the movement of microfilaments
• All muscles share some terminology
• Prefix myo refers to muscle (myocardial)
• Prefix mys refers to muscle (myastenia gravis)
• Prefix sarco refers to flesh (sarcolema)
Skeletal Muscle Characteristics
• Most are attached by tendons to bones
• Cells are multinucleate
• Striated – have visible banding
• Voluntary – subject to conscious control
• Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective tissue
Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal
Muscle
• Endomysium – around
single muscle fiber
• Perimysium – around a
fascicle (bundle) of fibers
• Epimysium – covers the
entire skeletal muscle
• Fascia – on the outside of
the epimysium

Figure 6.1
Skeletal Muscle Attachments
• Epimysium blends into a connective tissue attachment
• Tendon – cord-like structure
• Aponeuroses – sheet-like structure
• Sites of attachment
• Bones
• Cartilages
• Connective tissue coverings
Smooth Muscle Characteristics
• Has no striations
• Spindle-shaped cells
• Single nucleus
• Involuntary – no
conscious control
• Found in walls of hollow
organs

Figure 6.2a
Cardiac Muscle Characteristics
• Has striations
• involuntary
• Usually has a single
nucleus
• Joined to another muscle cell at
an intercalated disc
• Found only in the heart

Figure 6.2b
Function of Muscles
• Produce movement
• Maintain posture
• Stabilize joints
• Generate heat
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
• Cells are multinucleate
• Nuclei are just beneath the sarcolemma
• Sarcolemma–specialized plasma membrane

Figure 6.3a
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
• Myofibril
• Bundles of myofilaments
• Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct bands
• I band =
light band
• A band =
dark band

Figure 6.3b
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
• Sarcomere
• Contractile unit of a muscle fiber

Figure 6.3b
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
• Organization of the sarcomere
• Thick filaments = myosin filaments
• Composed of the protein myosin

Figure 6.3c
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal
Muscle
• Myosin filaments have heads (extensions, or cross
bridges)
• Myosin and actin overlap somewhat
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) – stores calcium
Properties of Skeletal Muscle Activity

• Irritability – ability to receive and respond to a

stimulus
• Contractility – ability to shorten when an adequate
stimulus is received
Muscle is Stimulated by Nerve

• Skeletal muscles must

be stimulated by a
nerve to contract
• Motor unit
• One neuron
• Muscle cells stimulated
by that neuron

Figure 6.4a
Nerve Stimulus to Muscles
• Neuromuscular junctions – the site of nerve and
muscle association

Figure 6.5b
Nerve Stimulus to Muscles
• Synaptic cleft – gap
between nerve and
muscle
• Nerve and muscle do not
make contact
• Area between nerve and
muscle is filled with
interstitial fluid

Figure 6.5b
Transmission of Nerve Impulse
• Neurotransmitter – a chemical released by the nerve
upon arrival of nerve impulse
• The neurotransmitter - acetylcholine
• Neurotransmitter attaches to receptors on the
sarcolemma
• Sarcolemma becomes permeable to sodium (Na+)
• Sodium enters the cell and generates an action
potential
• Once started, muscle contraction cannot be stopped
The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle
Contraction
• This action causes the
myosin to slide along the
actin
• The result is shortening of
the muscle – a contraction

Figure 6.7
The Muscular
System (b)
Muscle Response to Strong Stimuli
• Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers that
are stimulated
• More fibers contracting results in greater muscle
tension
• Muscles can continue to contract unless they run out
of energy
Energy for Muscle Contraction
• Muscles use stored ATP for energy
• Bonds of ATP are broken to release energy
• After this initial use, other pathways must be utilized to produce ATP
• Direct phosphorylation
• Muscle cells contain creatine phosphate
• After ATP is depleted, ADP is left
• CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP
Energy for Muscle Contraction
• Aerobic Respiration (Cellular
respiration)
• Series of metabolic pathways
that occur in the mitochondria
• Glucose is broken down to
carbon dioxide and water,
releasing energy
• This is a slower reaction that
requires continuous oxygen

Figure 6.10b
Energy for Muscle Contraction
• Anaerobic glycolysis
• Reaction that breaks down
glucose without oxygen
• Glucose is broken down to
pyruvic acid to produce some ATP
• Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic
acid
Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Debt
• When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to contract
• The common reason for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt
• Oxygen must be placed
• Oxygen is required to rid of accumulated lactic acid
• Increase acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of ATP
causes the muscle to contract less
2 Types of Muscle Contractions
• Isotonic contractions
• Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions
• Tension in the muscles increases
• The muscle shortens
• Isometric contractions
• Tension in the muscles increases
• The muscle is unable to shorten
Muscles and Body Movements
• Movement is attained due
to a muscle moving an
attached bone

Figure 6.12
Muscles and Body Movements
• Muscles are attached to
at least two points
• Origin – attachment to a
moveable bone
• Insertion – attachment to
an immovable bone

Figure 6.12
Effects of Exercise on Muscle
• Results of increased muscle use
• Increase in muscle size
• Increase in muscle strength
• Increase in muscle efficiency
• Muscle becomes more fatigue resistant
The Muscular System
(c)
Ordinary Body Movements
• Flexion
• Extension

• Rotation
• Abduction
• Circumduction
Types of Muscles
• Prime mover – muscle with the major responsibility for a certain
movement
• Antagonist – muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover
• Synergist – muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps
prevent rotation
• Fixator – stabilizes the origin of a prime mover
Naming of Skeletal Muscles
• Direction of muscle fibers
• Example: rectus (straight)
• Relative size of the muscle
• Example: maximus (largest)
Naming of Skeletal Muscles
• Location of the muscle
• Example: many muscles are named for bones (e.g., temporalis)
• Number of origins
• Example: triceps (three heads)
Naming of Skeletal Muscles
• Location of muscle’s origin and insertion
• Example: sterno (on the sternum)
• Shape of the muscle
• Example: deltoid (triangular)
• Action of the muscle
• Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)
Head and Neck Muscles

Figure 6.15
Trunk Muscles

Figure 6.16
Deep Trunk and Arm Muscles

Figure 6.17
Pelvis, Hip, and Thigh Muscles

Figure 6.19c
Muscles of the Lower Leg

Figure 6.20
Superficial
Muscles:
Anterior
Superficial
Muscles:
Posterior

Figure 6.22
The Skeletal System
 The Skeletal System
• Parts of the skeletal system include:
• Bones (skeleton)
• Joints
• Cartilages
• Ligaments
• Divided into two divisions:
1. Axial skeleton (skull, ribs and vertebra)
2. Appendicular skeleton (pelvis, extremities)
 Functions of Bones
• Support of the body
• Protection of soft organs
• Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
• Storage of minerals and fats
• Blood cell formation
Bones of the Human Body
• The adult skeleton has 206 bones
• Two basic types of bone tissue
• Compact bone
• Homogeneous
• Spongy bone
• Small needle-like
pieces of bone
• Many open spaces

Figure 5.2b
Classification of Bones on the Basis
of Shape

Figure 5.1
Classification of Bones
• Long bones
• Typically longer than wide
• Have a shaft with heads at both ends
• Contain mostly compact bone
• Examples: Femur, humerus

• Short bones
• Generally cube-shape
• Contain mostly spongy bone
• Examples: Carpals, tarsals
Classification of Bones
• Flat bones
• Thin and flattened, usually curved
• Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of
spongy bone
• Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum

• Irregular bones
• Irregular in shape
• Do not fit into other bone classification categories
• Example: Vertebrae and hip
Gross Anatomy
of a Long Bone
• Diaphysis
• Shaft
• Composed of compact bone
• Epiphysis
• Ends of the bone
• Composed mostly of spongy
bone

Figure 5.2a
Structures of a Long Bone
• Periosteum
• Outside covering of the
diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue
membrane
• Sharpey’s fibers
• Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
• Arteries
• Supply bone cells with
nutrients

Figure 5.2c
Structures of a Long Bone
• Articular cartilage
• Covers the external
surface of the epiphyses
• Made of hyaline cartilage
• Decreases friction at joint
surfaces

Figure 5.2a
Structures of a Long Bone
• Medullary cavity
• Cavity of the shaft
• Contains yellow marrow
(mostly fat) in adults
• Contains red marrow (for
blood cell formation) in
infants

Figure 5.2a
Bone Markings
• Surface features of bones
• Projections and processes – grow out from the bone
surface
• Depressions or cavities – indentations
• Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and
ligaments
• Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
• Osteon (Haversian System)
• A unit of bone
• Central (Haversian) canal
• Carries blood vessels and
nerves
• Perforating (Volkman’s)
canal
• Canal perpendicular to the
central canal
• Carries blood vessels and
nerves
 Changes in the Human Skeleton
• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
• During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas
• Bridge of the nose
• Parts of ribs
• Joints
 Bone Growth
• Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood
• New cartilage is continuously formed
• Older cartilage becomes ossified
• Cartilage is broken down
• Bone replaces cartilage
 Bone Growth
• Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth
stops
• Bones change shape somewhat
• Bones grow in width
Long Bone Formation and Growth

Figure 5.4b
Types of Bone Cells
• Osteocytes
• Mature bone cells
• Osteoblasts
• Bone-forming cells
• Osteoclasts
• Bone-destroying cells
• Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of
calcium
• Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and
osteoclasts
The Skeletal System (B)
 Bone Fractures
• A break in a bone
• Types of bone fractures
• Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate the skin
• Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates through the skin
• Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
• Realignment of the bone
Common Types of Fractures

Table 5.2
 Repair of Bone Fractures
• Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
• Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
• Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
• Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

Figure 5.5
 The Axial Skeleton
• Forms the longitudinal part of the body
• Divided into three parts
• Skull
• Vertebral column
• Bony thorax
The Axial Skeleton

Figure 5.6
 The Skull
• Two sets of bones
• Cranium
• Facial bones
• Bones are joined by sutures
• Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint
The Skull

Figure 5.7
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11
Human Skull, Superior View

Figure 5.8
Human Skull, Inferior View

Figure 5.9
The Skeletal System (C)
 Paranasal Sinuses
• Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity

Figure 5.10
 Paranasal Sinuses
• Functions of paranasal sinuses
• Lighten the skull
• Give resonance and amplification to voice

Figure 5.10
The Hyoid Bone
• The only bone that does
not articulate with
another bone
• Serves as a moveable
base for the tongue

Figure 5.12
The Fetal Skull
• The fetal skull is large
compared to the infants
total body length

Figure 5.13
The Fetal Skull
• Fontanelles – fibrous
membranes connecting
the cranial bones
• Allow the brain
to grow
• Convert to bone within 24
months after birth

Figure 5.13
The Vertebral Column
• Vertebrae separated by
intervertebral discs
• The spine has a normal
curvature
• Each vertebrae is given a
name according to its
location

Figure 5.14
Structure of a Typical Vertebrae

Figure 5.16
Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae

Figure 5.17a–b
Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae

Figure 5.17c–d
The Skeletal System (d)
The Bony Thorax
• Forms a cage to
protect major
organs

Figure 5.19a
The Bony Thorax
• Made-up of
three parts
• Sternum
• Ribs
• Thoracic
vertebrae

Figure 5.19a
 The Appendicular Skeleton
• Limbs (appendages)
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle
 The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
• Composed of two bones
• Clavicle – collarbone
• Scapula – shoulder blade
• These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free
movement
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

Figure 5.20a–b
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

Figure 5.20c–d
Bones of the Upper Limb
• The arm is formed by a
single bone
• Humerus

Figure 5.21a–b
Bones of the Upper Limb
• The forearm has two
bones
• Ulna
• Radius

Figure 5.21c
Bones of the Upper Limb
• The hand
• Carpals – wrist
• Metacarpals – palm
• Phalanges – fingers

Figure 5.22
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
• Hip bones
• Composed of three pair of fused bones
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubic bone
• The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
• Protects several organs
• Reproductive organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine
The Skeletal System (e)
The Pelvis

Figure 5.23a
The Pelvis: Right Coxal Bone

Figure 5.23b
Gender Differences of the Pelvis

Figure 5.23c
Bones of the Lower Limbs
• The thigh has one
bone
• Femur – thigh bone

Figure 5.24a–b
Bones of the Lower Limbs
• The leg has two bones
• Tibia
• Fibula

Figure 5.24c
Bones of the Lower Limbs
• The foot
• Tarsus – ankle
• Metatarsals – sole
• Phalanges – toes

Figure 5.25
Arches of the Foot
• Bones of the foot are
arranged to form three
strong arches
• Two longitudinal
• One transverse

Figure 5.26
 Joints
• Articulations of bones
• Functions of joints
• Hold bones together
• Allow for mobility
• Ways joints are classified
• Functionally
• Structurally
 Functional Classification of Joints
• Synarthroses – immovable joints
• Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
• Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
The Skeletal System (f)
 Structural Classification of Joints
• Fibrous joints
• Generally immovable
• Cartilaginous joints
• Immovable or slightly moveable
• Synovial joints
• Freely moveable
Synovial Joints
• Articulating bones
are separated by a
joint cavity
• Synovial fluid is
found in the joint
cavity

Figure 5.24f–h
 Features of Synovial Joints
• Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of bones
• Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular capsule
• Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
• Ligaments reinforce the joint
The Synovial Joint

Figure 5.28
Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape

Figure 5.29a–c
Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape

Figure 5.29d–f
Inflammatory Conditions Associated
with Joints

• Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a

blow or friction
• Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths
• Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative diseases of
joints
• Over 100 different types
• The most widespread crippling disease in the United
States
 Clinical Forms of Arthritis
• Osteoarthritis
• Most common chronic arthritis
• Probably related to normal aging processes
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• An autoimmune disease – the immune system attacks the joints
• Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints
• Often leads to deformities
 Clinical Forms of Arthritis
• Gouty Arthritis
• Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of urate crystals from the
blood
• Can usually be controlled with diet
Developmental Aspects of the
Skeletal System

• At birth, the skull bones are incomplete

• Bones are joined by fibrous membranes – fontanelles
• Fontanelles are completely replaced with bone within
two years after birth
Digestive System
Digestion
• Phases Include
1. Ingestion
2. Movement
3. Mechanical and Chemical Digestion
4. Absorption
5. Elimination
Digestion
• Types
• Mechanical (physical)
• Chew
• Tear
• Grind
• Mash
• Mix
• Chemical
• Enzymatic reactions to improve digestion of
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
 Digestive System Organization
• Gastrointestinal (Gl) tract
• Tube within a tube
• Direct link/path between organs
• Structures
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large Intestine
• Rectum

123
 Mouth
• Teeth mechanically break down food into small pieces.
Tongue mixes food with saliva (contains amylase, which
helps break down starch).
Mouth
• Epiglottis is a flap-like structure at the back of the
throat that closes over the trachea preventing food
from entering it. It is located in the Pharynx.
 Esophagus
• Approximately 20 cm long.
• Functions include:
1.Secrete mucus
2.Moves food from the throat to
the stomach using muscle
movement called peristalsis
• If acid from the stomach gets in
here that’s heartburn.
Mouth, Pharynx and Esophagus Video
 Stomach
• J-shaped muscular bag that stores the food you
eat, breaks it down into tiny pieces.
• Mixes food with Digestive Juices that contain
enzymes to break down Proteins and Lipids.
• Acid (HCl) in the stomach Kills Bacteria.
• Food found in the stomach is called Chyme.

127
 Small Intestine
• Small intestines are roughly 7 meters long
• Lining of intestine walls has finger-like
projections called villi, to increase surface
area.
• The villi are covered in microvilli which
further increases surface area for
absorption.

Crash Course Review 128

Small Intestine
• Nutrients from the food pass into the
bloodstream through the small
intestine walls.

• Absorbs:
• 80% ingested water
• Vitamins
• Minerals
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids

• Secretes digestive enzymes

129
 Large Intestine
• About 1.5 meters long
• Accepts what small intestines don’t
absorb
• Rectum (short term storage which
holds feces before it is expelled).
 Large Intestine
• Functions
• Bacterial digestion
• Ferment carbohydrates

– Absorbs more water

– Concentrate wastes
Accessory Organs The Glands
• Not part of the path of food, but
play a critical role.

• Include: Liver, gall

bladder, and pancreas
 Liver
• Directly affects digestion by producing
bile
• Bile helps digest fat
• filters out toxins and waste including drugs
and alcohol and poisons.

133
Gall Bladder
• Stores bile from the liver, releases
it into the small intestine.
• Fatty diets can cause gallstones
Pancreas
• Produces digestive enzymes to
digest fats, carbohydrates and
proteins
• Regulates blood sugar by
producing insulin

Web Page Reinforcement Video

On a sheet of paper, write the name of each colored
organ:
• Green:
• Red:
• Pink:
• Brown:
• Purple:
• Green:
• Yellow:
How’d you do?
• Green: Esophagus
• Red: Stomach
• Pink: Small Intestine
• Brown: Large Intestine
• Purple: Liver
• Green: Gall Bladder
• Yellow: Pancreas

Great Job!
The Circulatory System / Transport System
Circulatory System also plays two important roles in
maintaining homeostasis.
Exchanging molecules, the circulatory system controls
the makeup of the environment in which the cell live.

The circulatory system controls the chemical makeup

of the blood by continuously transporting it through
organs such as liver and the kidneys.
Parts of the Cardiovascular System
• Blood
• Heart
• Blood vessels

• Blood
In the human body, blood accounts for about 7 to 8% of the total
body weight . The volume of circulating blood vessel varies with the
size of the person. An average male adult weighing 70 kilograms or
154 pounds has about 5 liters of blood.
Blood in the body helps maintain homeostasis. Blood transport
oxygen and nutrients to the cells and removes carbon dioxide,
ammonia, and other waste products. Blood also boosts the immune
system to protect a person against disease-causing organisms.
Blood also helps a person maintain a relatively constant body
temperature
.
 .

• Components of the Blood

The blood is a highly specialized connective tissue composed of
more than 4000 different kinds of components. It is a viscous
fluid from bright scarlet to dark red, depending on the amount
of oxygen it carries. There are two main components of the
blood: plasma and formed elements.
Blood Plasma
About 55% of the blood volume is the liquid part of the blood
called plasma. Plasma is about 90 % water. The remaining 10%
of plasma compromises the different substances dissolved and
suspended in water.
Next to water, the substance with the second largest percentage
in the plasma is protein
Plasma protein include the following:
1. Albumin is the most abundant plasma protein in the blood. It
is manufactured in the liver. It is essential in maintaining the
osmotic pressure of the blood to regulate blood flow.
2. Clotting factors are proteins that are switched on the certain
sequence called the clotting cascade when a blood vessel is
damaged.
3. Antibodies in the plasma help fight infections. Several proteins
collectively make up the complement system, the innate
immune system that helps antibodies defend the body
against pathogens.
About 9 to 10% of the plasma is indispensible to life. This
includes dissolved nutrients such as glucose, fats, and amino
acids and electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, calcium ,
magnesium, chloride, carbonate, and phosphate.
.

• Electrolytes perform a variety of functions. Sodium, potassium,

carbonates and phosphate keep the acid-base balance in the
blood; calcium and phosphorus assist in the bone formation ;
and iodine helps in the production of thyroid hormones.
• There are other substances, such as vitamins, metabolic waste
products, hormones, and drugs that are also found in the
plasma
• Blood plasma transports food nutrients and oxygen to the cells
of the body. It also carries wastes away from the cells. In
addition, plasma plays an important role in maintaining the
body’s chemical balance, water content, and temperature.
Through blood analysis, medical doctors determine the types
of nutrients, levels of hormones, electrolytes, and other
substances in the plasma circulating throughout the body
.

• Formed Elements
Formed elements in the blood normally make up about 45% of
the blood volume and consist primarily of three cellular
components
• Red Blood Cells (RBC’s) also called erythrocytes
• Erythros is Greek for red and cytes pertains to cell
Make up about 40% of the bloods volume. RBC’s are tiny,
concave disk-shaped cells. The ability of RBC’s to carry oxygen
is due to a protein called hemoglobin that contain iron on its
surface. Hemoglobin with oxygen gives the blood its
characteristic red color. The brighter is the red color of the
blood, the more oxygen it contains. Blood coming from the
lungs is bright red because of its high oxygen content, while
blood that returns to the lungs is dark red because of its
oxygen content is either low or depleted.
 .

• Mature red blood cells in mammals have biconcave shape.

They contain no nucleus. Because of this, red blood cells are
unable to repair themselves, and thus have a short life. They
live for about 120 days. They stay in the blood for 10 days only

• They are destroyed mostly in the spleen and in the liver

• Red blood cells are made in the red marrow of the flat bones
(such as a rib) and of long bones (such as the thigh bone)

• Blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and
blood platelets, are formed from special connective tissue cells
referred to as hemocytoblasts
• Leukocytes
.

White blood cells (WBC’s) which are also called leukocytes, are
round cells with prominent nuclei of varying shapes and sizes.
They are outnumbered by RBC’s by a ratio of 700 to 1
One milliliters of healthy human blood, regardless of sex,
contains 5000 to 10,000 white blood cells
WBC’s are responsible primarily for defending the body against
infections.
Leukocytes circulate in the blood for only 6 to 8 hours. Some
may enter the tissue where they can survive for days, months,
or even years.
There five main types of white blood cells, which are also
categorized into granular leukocytes or granulocytes or
agranular leukocytes or agranulocytes. Granulocytes show
visible granules in the cytoplasm when stained.
 .

• Granulocytes
1. Neutrophils are the most numerous type; they constitute
about 60% of all leukocytes. They have lavender granules and
are active in fighting infections through phagocytosis, which
involves engulfing and ingesting bacteria, fungi, and other
foreign debris
2. Eosinophils Have bright pink, beadlike granules. They kill
parasites, destroy cancer cells, and are involved in allergic
responses.
3. Basophils have large, Dark blue granules, often with obscure
nuclei. They participate in allergic responses. Both
eosinophils and basophils make up a small percentage of the
white blood cells but increase in number during allergic
reactions
.
.
.
 .

• Agranular leukocytes or arganulocytes

• are those that lack visible granules.
1. Lymphocytes are the second most numerous of the white
blood cells and are active in providing immunity.
They consist of three main types: T lymphocytes and natural
killer cells (NK cells) both help protect against viral infection
and can detect and destroy some cancer cells; and B
lymphocytes which produce antibodies.
2. Monocytes are the largest in size. These function as
phagocytes by ingesting dead or damaged cells. Monocytes
help defend the body against many infectious organisms.
.
 .

• Platelets
Also called thrombocytes are the smallest of the blood’s formed
elements.
They are named for their resemblance to tiny plates
The ratio of platelets to red blood cells is about 1:20
Platelets play an important role in the clotting process by clumping
together to form a plug that helps seal a blood vessel at a
bleeding site.
Platelets also release substance that help promote further clotting.
When the number of platelets is too low, a condition called
thrombocytopenia bruising and abnormal bleeding may occur.
But when the number of platelets is too high, a condition called
thrombocythemia, the blood may clot excessively, causing a
stroke or heart attack.
Platelets are manufactured in the red marrow as fragments of
megakaryocytes, certain cell with giant nuclei.
.
.

• Heart
• The power that propels blood through the blood vessels comes
from the heart.
• The human heart is about the size of a fist. It is located at the
center of the chest cavity.
• The heart contracts 72 times per minute on the average, or
more than 100,000 times a day –increasingly in a person’s
lifetime
• The human heart is a double pump in one organ. The right side
pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through the pulmonary
circuit. The left side of the heart receives oxygen-rich blood
from the lungs. This blood then circulated to the rest of the
body through the systemic circuit. The two side are separated
by a thick wall of muscle called septum.
 .

• On each side of the heart are two chambers. The chambers

contract in pairs. The upper chambers are called atria
(sing., atrium) They receive blood coming into the heart and
pump it into the ventricles-the heart’s two lower chambers
The ventricles are larger than the atria and have thicker walls
because they pump blood out of the heart.
The human heart has four chambers
The chambered labelled structure
Right Atrium (RA) Left Atrium (LA)
Right Ventricle (RV) Left Ventricle (LV)
It is protected by a tough sac of connective tissue, the
pericardium. It is also protected from external injury by the rib
cage.
.
.
.
 .

• Blood Vessels
• The blood vessels and the four chambers of the heart form a
closed system wherein blood is transported to and from the
tissues.
• Types of Blood Vessels
• Based on their functions, the blood vessels are divided into
three types, namely
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart and into the
capillaries in the tissues. They have thick and elastic walls
strong enough to receive high-pressure blood pumped from
the ventricles of the heart. The largest artery is the aorta. It
has the thickest wall. The smallest subdivision of the arteries
are called arterioles, with thinner walls and less elastic
connective tissues.
• Veins return the blood to the heart and drain the capillaries in
.

the tissues. Their walls are thinner but wider than those of the
arteries. Most veins are equipped with one-way valves that
allow blood to flow only in one direction toward the heart. The
smallest veins are called venules.
• Capillaries are the finest and smallest of the three types of
vessels. They have much thinner and less elastic walls than the
arteries. Dissolved substances in the blood can easily pass
through the membranes of capillaries and diffuse into the
surrounding cells. These substances include dissolved food,
metabolic waste products, and gases. The capillaries facilitate
the exchange of materials between the blood and body cells or
between the blood and the lung tissue. Capillaries also connect
arterioles and venules.
.
.
 .

• Blood Types
• The history of blood typing started when a scientist by the
name of Karl Landsteiner discovered two kinds of substances
(called antigen and antibodies) in human blood. The antigens
are referred to simply as A and B. Their corresponding
antibodies are referred to as anti-A and anti-B. The antigens
are found in the red blood cells, while the antibodies are
dissolved in the serum.
People are grouped into four classifications according to the
presence, absence or combination of these antigens and
antibodies. Type A has antigen A, Type B has antigen B Type AB
has both antigens A and B and O has neither A nor B.
.
.
Blood circuits

The flow of blood in the vessels can be subdivided into two

circuits: pulmonary and systemic

1. The pulmonary circuit removes carbon dioxide from the blood

and replenishes its supply of oxygen. The pulmonary artery
and its branches transport blood from the right ventricle to the
lungs. The capillaries in the lungs facilitate the exchange of
gases by releasing carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen. The
pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood back to the heart via
the left atrium. Pulmonary veins are unique because they are
the only veins that carry oxygen-rich blood to the heart. All
other veins carry that is low in oxygen.
 .

• The systemic circuit supplies nutrients and oxygen to all the

tissues and collects waste materials away from the tissues for
elimination. The Aorta receives blood from the left ventricle
and then branches into smaller arteries carrying blood to the
tissues. Materials are exchanged in the capillaries found in the
body tissues. The veins return blood back to the heart. This
venous blood flows into the right atrium of the heart through
the two large veins: superior vena cava and the inferior vena
cava.
.
Functions
The circulatoryof the
system circulatory
has three functions: system
1. Transporting substances around the body. These include oxygen,
glucose, carbon dioxide, nutrients, water and waste products.

2. Controlling body temperature.

3. Protecting the body. Blood contains cells and anti-bodies

that fight infection and clotting agents to stop bleeding.

The circulatory system is described as a double system because it has two

loops.
The circulatory system
Deoxygenated Oxygenated
blood is pumped
lungs blood returns
from the heart to to the heart
the lungs through the
through the pulmonary
pulmonary vein.
artery.
Oxygenated blood
Deoxygenated is pumped at high
blood returns to pressure from the
the heart heart to the body
through the vena through the aorta.
cava. body’s
cells
The The
double circulatory
pulmonary circulation carries: system
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
oxygenated blood back from the lungs to the
lungs
heart, ready to be pumped out to the body.

The systemic circulation carries:

oxygenated blood to the rest of the body

through the arteries
deoxygenated blood back to the heart through
the veins. body’s
cells
The circulatory system
Blood
Therevessels
are three types of blood vessels, as shown in this magnified part of the
circulatory system.

blood from blood to the

the heart heart

artery vein
carries blood carries blood
away from back into
the heart the heart
carries blood to and
from the body’s cells

Why are there different types of blood vessels?

Blood vessels thick outer wall

thick inner layer of muscle and elastic

fibres

narrow central tube (lumen)

ARTERY
thin outer wall

thin inner layer of muscle and elastic

fibres

wide central tube (lumen) CAPILLARY

VEIN

wall only one cell thick

Blood
Whenvessels: valves
blood is flowing against gravity, or when a vein is squeezed by muscle action, there is
a risk that blood will flow in the wrong direction. Veins have valves to prevent backflow.

backflow
prevented
vein valve
open
vein valve
blood to closed
the heart

The valves allow blood to

…but close if blood starts to
flow in the correct
flow in the wrong direction.
direction…
Blood vessels
Cardiac system
The four chambers of the heart have special names:

An upper chamber is called an atrium (plural: atria).

right
atrium left
atrium

right left
ventricle ventricle

A lower chamber is called a ventricle.

Cardiac system
Here are some other important parts of the heart:

The semi-lunar valves

The walls are prevent expelled blood
made of cardiac flowing back into the
muscle. heart.

The wall dividing Bicuspid (mitral)

the left and right valve
sides of the
heart is called Tricuspid valve
the septum.

These two valves prevent

blood flowing back into the
atria from the ventricles.
The heart as a pump
The Heart
heart rate (orduring
pulse rate) is theexercise
number of
times your heart beats every minute.
You can measure how fast your heart is
beating by taking your pulse.
It is expressed in beats per minute (bpm).
Resting heart rate varies from individual to
individual and is affected by fitness.
The fitter you are, the lower your resting
heart rate will be.
The average resting heart rate is about 70– This can be done at the wrist or the neck.
75 bpm. Count how many times your heart beats
in 6 seconds and then multiply by 10.
The Each
heartindividualduring
has a maximumexercise
heart rate – the fastest that their heart is able to
beat. Testing it properly is difficult and unpleasant, as it involves pushing your body
to its absolute limit.
However, maximum heart rate can be estimated using a simple formula:

Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) = 220 – age

So, a 25 year-old would have a maximum heart rate of

220 – 25
= 195 bpm

What would your maximum heart rate be?

The During
heart during
exercise, the body uses exercise
up oxygen and nutrients at a much faster rate. To keep the
body supplied with what it needs, the heart beats faster and with greater force.
This means that the heart rate and stroke volume increase.

What do you think happens to the cardiac output?

Regular exercise causes changes to the heart.

The heart gets larger

The muscular wall become thicker and stronger
Stroke volume at rest increases, leading to a lower
resting heart rate.
The heart during exercise
Blood pressure
Blood
Bloodpressure
pressure depends on the speed of the blood coming into a vessel and the width
of the vessel itself.

Arteries Capillaries Veins

Speed: high Speed: medium Speed: low
Width: medium Width: narrow Width: wide

Pressure: high Pressure: medium Pressure: low

Blood pressure
An individual’s blood pressure is affected by a number of factors.

Age – it increases as you get older.

Gender – men tend to have higher blood pressure than women.
Stress can cause increased blood pressure.
Diet – salt and saturated fats can increase blood pressure.
Exercise – the fitter you are the lower your blood pressure is likely to
be.

Having high blood pressure puts stress on your heart. It can lead to angina,
heart attacks and strokes.
Effects of exercise on blood pressure
The immediate effect of exercise is to raise the blood pressure as the heart beats
faster and more powerfully.

During intense exercise, blood flow to the muscles can increase to 35 times its
normal volume. Higher blood pressure is necessary in order to get this extra blood
to the muscles.

However, in the long-term, regular exercise

reduces blood pressure. The fitter you are, the
lower your blood pressure is likely to be.
Blood flowsystem
The circulatory and
plays body
an important temperature
role in regulating body temperature.

Capillaries
Sweat
gland

If the body gets too hot, capillaries near the surface of the skin widen. Blood is diverted
to the skin where the heat can easily radiate away. This is called vasodilation.
Water from the blood is excreted as sweat to cool the body.
Blood flow and body temperature

Capillaries
Sweat
gland

If the body gets too cold, capillaries near the surface of the skin get narrower. Blood is
diverted away from the skin to limit heat loss. This is called vasoconstriction.
Sweating stops.
Blood
Blood is the body’s means of transporting substances around. It
transports:

oxygen from the lungs to the heart and then to the body’s tissues
carbon dioxide from the tissues to the heart and then to the lungs to be expired
materials like hormones from one organ to another
nutrients (especially glucose) and minerals from the intestines to the tissues
waste products to the kidneys.
Blood
Red Blood
blood cells
is made up of a number of different elements.
The most common cell in blood is the red blood cell.

Also called erythrocytes.

Disc-shaped.
Made in the bone marrow.
Contain a red-coloured compound called
haemoglobin which bonds with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
Transport oxygen to the tissues.

How important do you think red blood cells are to sports

performance?
White
Bloodblood cells
also contains white blood cells.

Also called leucocytes.

They are bigger than red blood cells and
have large nuclei.
Act as the body’s defence system.

Some white blood cells surround and consume harmful microbes.

Some produce chemicals called antibodies that fight infection.

How important do you think white blood cells are to

sports performance?
Platelets
Platelets are also carried in the blood.

Formed in red bone marrow.

Produce thrombokinase –
a chemical needed for blood clotting.
Platelets help to repair tissues
and close wounds both
internally and externally.
When needed, they grow into irregular shapes and
stick together to form a plug over the wound.

How important do you think platelets are to sports

performance?
Plasma
The blood cells and platelets are suspended in a substance called plasma. Plasma is made
up of:

90% water
inorganic salts
glucose
antibodies
urea and other waste products
plasma proteins. plasma

Plasma can be separated from

the other components of blood
using a centrifuge.
Blood cells
Role of blood in achieving sports potential
Because red blood cells carry oxygen, which is vital to muscle action, it is
advantageous for a performer to have a high red blood cell count, especially in
endurance events.

When athletes train and live at altitude, where

there is less oxygen in the air, their bodies
compensate by producing extra red blood cells.
This means that they can perform at a higher
intensity than other athletes when performing
at sea level.

© EMPICS Ltd
Blood doping
An athlete’s red blood cell count can be
illegally boosted through blood doping.
Several months before a competition,
blood is removed from a performer.
Their body produces more blood to replace
the blood that has been removed.
The red blood cells are separated out
from the removed blood and stored. Just before the competition, they are re-injected
into the competitor, giving them an artificially high red blood cell count.

Blood doping can improve performance by 20%, however, the extra blood can lead to
dangerous blood clots and all the heart problems associated with high blood pressure.
Exam-style questions
1. During exercise, extra demands are placed on the circulatory system.

a) Describe what happens to heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output
during intensive physical activity.
b) Describe how the circulatory system helps to regulate body temperature
during exercise.

2. Blood contains several different types of cell.

a) Explain the function of red blood cells in the body.

b) Describe one way in which a performer could increase their red blood cell
count.
Quiz
Heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output

The pulse rate is not the only way of measuring the heart.

Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped

out of the left ventricle per beat.

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped

out of the left ventricle of the heart per minute.

Cardiac output can be calculated by multiplying the stroke volume by the

heart rate:

cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate

What is the cardiac output of someone with a heart rate of 60 bpm and
stroke volume of 90 ml?
 .

• Diseases or Disorders of the Circulatory System

• Myocardial Infarction or heart attack happens when the

coronary arteries or one of their smaller branches leading to a
part of the heart muscle is blocked, usually caused by a blood
clot. When this happens the part of the heart muscle loses its
blood and oxygen supplies. This part of the heart is at risk of
dying unless the blockage is immediately removed. The
common symptoms of a heart attack are nausea; vomiting;
light-headedness or sudden dizziness; shortness of breath;
chest pain and discomfort; and upper body discomfort in one
or both arms, left shoulder, neck, jaw, or back, or upper part of
the stomach.
 .

• Arrhythmia an abnormality in the beating of the heart. The

heartbeat of a person with this condition may be too fast, or
irregular. Arrhythmia may cause a person to experience
fatigue, shortness of breath, or fainting since the condition
may cause not enough blood supply to a person’s body. The
treatment of arrhythmia includes implanting a person with a
pacemaker, a small device inserted into the chest or abdomen
to help control heartbeat.

• Congenital heart defect an abnormality in the structure of the

heart upon child’s birth. The defect is due to the abnormal
development of the heart of the fetus. Defects may include a
hole in the septum or a displaced aorta. A person with
congenital heart defect would require surgery.
 .

• Coronary heart diseases a disease that progresses when fatty

deposits, calcium, and scar tissue or plague build up in the
artery which supplies the heart with blood. Among its causes
are high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and high fat diet.
The symptoms of a coronary heart disease include chest pain
during exertion; shortness of breath; pain on jaw, back, and
arm; palpitation; light headedness; irregular heartbeat. Its
treatment include lifestyle changes such as doing regular
exercises and quitting smoking, as well as medication and
surgery.
Condition affecting the Cardiovascular System
• Atherosclerosis This is a very common disease of the arteries
wherein plaque builds up within the blood vessel wall. The lumen
of the blood vessel becomes occluded or blocked, decreasing
blood flow. Atherosclerosis that occurs in the coronary arteries
may lead to a heart attack.
• Hypertension This is the reason it was given the name “silent
killer “ However there are symptoms to watch out for: severe
headache, nape pain, pounding on your chest, neck and temples,
vision problems like blurred vision, irregular heartbeat and fatigue
• Stroke occurs when there is damage to the brain caused by a
blocked blood vessel. Symptoms of stroke include the following;
Sudden numbness and weakness in the arm, leg, and face if it
occurs on only one side of the body; slurred speech; vision
changes; confusion and difficulty in understanding simple
statements; and difficulty in maintaining balance.