Theories of Development - Ch01

Children: A
Chronological
Approach
Fifth Canadian Edition
• Chapter 1
Child Development: Theories and Themes

• Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1-1

Modules
1.1 Theories of Child Development
1.2 Themes in Child-Development Research

Module 1.1: Theories of Child Development
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe Describe Canada’s unique contribution to developmental research.
State State the major tenets of the biological perspective.
Explain Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.
Identify Identify the focus of learning theories.
Describe Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children’s thinking.
Name Name the main points of the contextual approach.
Explain Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.
Identify Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology.

What is a theory?
• Theory : A system of beliefs about something
• An organized set of ideas designed to explain and make predictions

about development.
• Child development theory : collection of integrated beliefs about

why children behave, think and feel as they do
Theories of Child Development:
Historical Perspectives
1632–1704 1861–1934
John Locke: (English, 1632-1704) James Mark Baldwin: (Canada, 1861-
tabula rasa 1934 ) theory guides experimentation
Jean-Jacques Rosseau: (French, 1712-

1778) innate sense of justice
1712–1778

Canada’s Contribution
Strong history in developmental research

supported by Stats Canada
Access to historical information through Dr.

Christopher Green’s website
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/

The Biological Perspective
1809–1882 1903–1989
Natural Selection (Darwin) Ethological theory (Lorenz)
• Critical periods
• Imprinting
• Attachment
Maturational theory (Gessell)
1880–1961
https://practicalpie.com/biological-theory-of-personality/

Maturationist Theory
Development is determined by: heredity
and biology»
• Importance of genes
• Environment has very little impact on development
• Children develop according to predictable developmental
milestones
Research support for this theory:
• Development of some skills in fixed order (milestones)

• Some behavioral characteristics are stable across the
lifespan (plant analogy)----» Personality
• Twins reared apart have many similarities
• Temperament (easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up)

Limitations and analysis
of Maturationist Theory
Environment clearly plays a big Can lead to underestimating or Can lead to cultural bias
role undervaluing individuals
(Educational and political
implications)

The Psychodynamic Perspective
• Development stems from an ability to resolve key conflicts between
desires/impulses and pressures from the outside world»
• Focus is exclusively on personality/emotional development
• Underlined the importance of early experiences and the importance of attachment

(primarily with the parents)
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 10

The Psychodynamic Perspective
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Theory of Personality
Components of personality
• Id
• Ego
• Superego
Psychosexual Theory
• Individual’s instinct vs. societal norms

• Libido

3 Components of Personality
• Id: Part of the mind that includes
instinctual urges and strives for
immediate gratification but is kept
in check by ego and superego
• Ego: Rational part of the mind

that regulates and redirects
instinctual impulses of the ID
• Superego: Part of the mind that

comprises the conscience; values
and mores of one’s culture. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7vFf5CS27-Y

Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erickson (1902-1994)
• Psychosocial Theory
• Emphasis on social and cultural
influences.
• Sequence of stages defined by a unique
crisis.
• Journey to adulthood is fraught with
obstacles.

Erickson: emotional conflict
Resolution of emotional conflicts
drives development
trust vs. mistrust (birth – 18
months)
autonomy vs. shame/doubt
(18 months – 3.5 years)
initiative vs. guilt (3.5 – 6
years)
industry vs. inferiority (6 –12
years)

A Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stage Theories (1 of 2)
Table 1–1 A Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stage Theories
Blank Freud: Psychosexual Stages Erikson: Psychosocial Stages
Age Stage Task Stage Task
Birth to 1 year Oral Erogenous zone: mouth; gratify oral Basic trust vs. To develop a sense that
sucking urges mistrust the world is safe, a “good
place”
1 to 3 years Anal Erogenous zone: anus; release and Autonomy vs. To realize that one is an
withhold feces shame and doubt independent person who
can make decisions
3 to 6 years Phallic Erogenous zone: genitalia; learn to Initiative vs. guilt To develop a willingness to
suppress attraction to the parent of try new things and to
the opposite sex and identify with the handle failure
parent of the same sex
6 years to Latency Erogenous zone: none; libido is Industry vs. To learn basic skills and to
adolescence repressed as children go about daily Inferiority work with others
business

A Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stage Theories (2 of 2)
Table 1–1 A Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stage Theories
Blank Freud: Psychosexual Stages Erikson: Psychosocial Stages
Age Stage Task Stage Task
Adolescence Genital Erogenous zone: Identity vs. identity To develop a lasting and
genitalia; attraction to the confusion integrated sense of self
opposite sex (not the
parent)
Young adulthood Blank Blank Intimacy vs. isolation To commit to another in a

loving relationship
Middle adulthood Blank Blank Generativity vs. To contribute to younger

stagnation people through childrearing,
child care, or other
productive work
Later life Blank Integrity vs. despair To view one’s life as Blank
satisfactory and worth
living

Psychosocial Theory
Freud vs Erickson: Similarities and differences
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZAx0SOmmuU8
**Fixation: Arrested development at a particular

psychosexual/psychosocial stage that can prevent
movement to higher stages.

of Psychoanalytic Theory
• Addresses only a narrow range of emotional states
• Based on personal observations of a small sample
• Includes behaviors that are not valued in all cultures and
genders
– autonomy

Behaviourist Theory
the process of learning
• «Human traits are acquired through experiences within the

environment.» (‘’blank slate’’ perspective)
• Adults can purposefully shape desired learning and behavior

through positive reinforcement and punishment
• Prominent theorists: Watson, Skinner, Bandura

The Learning Perspective: Classical conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

– Classical conditioning
– Pavlov’s dog
– Pairing a NEUTRAL stimulus with a PLEASANT or AVERISIVE stimulus
 Neutral = No reaction
 Pleasant = Positive reaction
 Neutral + pleasant = Positive Reaction
 Neutral = Positive Reaction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-6KzZKuQ1lk&list=PLbKSbFnKYVY3xnCexdjTjW4vd4vp6S5gE

The Learning Perspective:
Classical conditioning in human
•
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
– Strong emphasis on environmental influences.
– Endorses Locke’s tabula rasa theory
– Pairing neutral event with something pleasurable or
unpleasurable
 “Little Albert” experiment
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsO
I

Learning Perspective: Operant Conditioning
• B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
– Focuses on outcome of behavior.
– shaping behavior through reward (breaking into small steps)
 Reinforcement
– Positive reinforcement
– Negative reinforcement
– Punishment
• Reinforcement: Positive/Negative
• Behavior ----» Consequences
• Punishment: Positive/Negative
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ut1zmfolM9E

Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-
WHk

Operant Conditioning: Punishment
Positive Punishment Negative Punishment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bKvWdXZiSy8

Classical VS Operant (instrumental)
Conditioning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0E0io

Learning Perspective
Classical conditioning (Watson)
• pairing neutral event with something pleasurable or

unpleasurable
• Albert’s conditioned fear of rats
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
• shaping behavior through reward (breaking into small

steps)
Social learning (Bandura)
• modeling desired behaviors that children will imitate

• especially behaviors that are rewarded

Do what I do, not what I say?

The Learning Perspective: Social Learning
• Also called the Social Cognitive Theory
• Albert Bandura (1925- )
– Imitation or observational learning.
– Modeling desired behaviors that children will imitate
– especially behaviors that are rewarded
– Emphasizes:
 role of environment
 behaviour
 cognitions (i.e. self-efficacy)
Bobo doll experiment:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8

Limitation and analysis
of Behaviourist Theory
• Many behaviors are not rewarded
– Language learning (and invented language)
• Many behaviors are not imitated (absence of reward)
• Educational programs designed around behaviorist
principles do not always have a good track record
– Some cultures never use praise as a reward
– Children may be overwhelmed in school where excess
praise is common

The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective
Knowledge is constructed
actively by learners, who Learners assimilate new ideas into what
they already know and adjust previous
struggle to make sense out thinking to accommodate new information.
of experience»
Infants, children, and adolescents are

naturally motivated to make sense of the
physical and social world
Prominent theorist: Jean 4 distinct stages in cognitive development
Piaget (1896-1980) • Sensorimotor

• Preoperational
• Concrete operations
• Formal operations

Table 1–2 Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Approximate Characteristics

Age
Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years Infant’s knowledge of the world is based on

senses and motor skills. By the end of the
period, infant uses mental representations.
Preoperational 2 to 6 years Child learns how to use symbols such as words

thought and numbers to represent aspects of the world
but relates to the world only through his or her
perspective.
Concrete 7 to 11 years Child understands and applies logical operations

operational thought to experiences, provided the experiences are
focused on the here and now.
Formal operational Adolescence and Adolescent or adult thinks abstractly, speculates

thought beyond on hypothetical situations, and reasons
deductively about what may be possible.

Paiget’s stages of cognitive development

• Learning through actions:
– External: banging an object against a surface to hear the
noise it makes
– Internal: mental operations
• Processing information (learning process): When learners
are trying to make sense of new information there is a
disequilibrium. Can be resolved through 2 processes:
• Assimilation: Integrating new ideas formation into what we
already know about
• Accommodation: Modifying what we already know to make
room for new ideas formation

Assimilation
• - --------------» Dog
• ---------------» Dogs

Accommodation
• --------------» NOT a Dog
• ---» Creating new category. CATS

Cats!

Application to social situations
– Social cognition: Ability to understand social
situations; recognizing the outcomes of one`s
behaviors and actions and motives of others

of Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Children may be more intellectually Emphasis on particular thinking skills

competent than Piaget suggested (small may be too Western and male oriented
number)
May serve to maintain status quo (logic and
reason are “highest” form of thinking)
BUT, does emphasize role of
culture/environment
• All children of the world learn, through
assimilation and accommodation, the skills,
knowledge, beliefs, and values important to
their own family and culture.

Sociocultural Theory
«Development highly influenced by: social interactions, language and culture»
The Contextual Perspective
• Children construct knowledge of the world through social interaction and

verbalization.
• Adults and peers “scaffold” children’s learning by asking questions or challenging

thinking.
• Prominent theorist: Vygotsky

Sociocultural Theory: The Contextual Perspective
• Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)

– Culture,knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, symbolic representations
and behaviours
– associated with distinct groups of people
– provides the context in which a child develops
– important influence from infancy to adolescence
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/individuals-and-s
ociety/self-identity/v/vygotsky-sociocultural-development

Sociocultural Theory: The Contextual Perspective
Key concepts
– Children construct knowledge through action and
through language.
– Children progress from nonverbal thought to verbal
thought to self-directed speech.
– Parents and teachers use language and other social
interactions to guide children’s thinking
 indirect guidance is most helpful when children
are in the zone of proximal development for a
skill
– skill is just above child’s current level

Limitations and Analysis
of Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky’s work was incomplete
Development is (rightly) emphasis on culture

seen as social and collective not exclusively Western
rather than purely individual.

Ecological Systems Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)
Various environmental influences.
Environment is a series of embedded systems
• Microsystem
• Mesosystem
• Exosystem
• Macrosystem

Ecological
Systems
Theory

• Development is influenced by interactions among the personal,
social, and political systems within which children live.
• Prominent theorist: Bronfenbrenner
– Multiple layers of influence
 Microsystem (immediate environment)
 Mesosystem (interconnections among institutions in
microsystem)
 Exosystem (institutions with indirect effect: neighbors,
mass media)
 Macrosystem (overarching values, ideologies, laws,
worldviews, and customs)

Risk factors and protective factors
Risk factors: Conditions in a child’s life that can lead to
poor development including; poverty, community violence,
and child abuse.
Protective factors: Conditions that might insulate children

from the negative effects of risk factors. Ex: Attachment to
parents and positive preschool experiences
It takes a village: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdhp5V

DXbV0

Limitations and Analysis of
Limited empirical studies focus on risk factors

and protective factors (so
support many contributing factors)
most useful in identifying

social issues concerning
Very culturally sensitive children in poverty or those of
historically underrepresented
groups

Newer Approaches to
Child Development Theories
Information Processing Theory
Evolutionary Theory
Developmental Psychopathology

Information-Processing Theory
Human mind is similar to a computer
Emphasizes the “parts” of human development
Development reflects changes in
• Mental Hardware
• Mental Software

Information Processing Theory
«Knowledge is acquired by applying specific thinking
processes to pay attention to, store, remember, retrieve,
and modify information» (organization and rehearsal)
Prominent theorists: Siegler, Dodge
importance of attention and memory

(remembering)
new attention to how information processing
Key concepts relates to social behaviors and social
problems
• determining others’ intentions, deciding
how to respond

Social information processing theory
Social cues: Actions, facial

Social information processing
expressions, tone of voice, spoken
theory: Information processing
words, and other social signals
guides learning AND social
performed by peers that help
interaction; social cues, observing
interpret social situations (and
interactions with other
know how to respond)

Limitation and analysis of Information
Processing Theory
May focus too narrowly on specific learning situations

and the ways individuals think about and learn from
them (does not integrate assimilation, accommodation,
logical reasoning)
Does not always address cultural variations or role of

culture (ways to pay attention)

Evolutionary Theory
Evolution shapes behaviour and characteristics
• survival of infants and children
• grandparent-grandchild relationships
Evolutionary developmental psychology
• Bjorklund and Pellegrini
• metatheory of human development

Developmental Psychopathology
Broad unified understanding of how abnormal
development can occur.
• development is a dynamic process
• continual transformation across the lifespan

The Big Picture (1 of 3)
Table 1–3 Summary Table
Characteristics of Developmental Perspectives
Biological Development is determined primarily Maturational theory: emphasizes development

by biological forces. as a natural unfolding of a biological plan.
Blank Blank Ethological: emphasizes the adaptive nature of

behaviour and the importance of experience
during critical periods of development.
Psychodynamic Development is determined primarily Freud: emphasizes the conflict between

by how a child resolves conflicts at primitive biological forces and societal
different ages. standards for right and wrong.
Blank Blank Erikson: emphasizes the challenges posed by

the formation of trust, autonomy, initiative,
industry, and identity.
Learning Development is determined primarily Skinner: emphasizes the role of reinforcement

(behaviourist theory) by a child’s environment. and punishment in response to behaviour.
Blank Blank Bandura: emphasizes children’s efforts to

understand their world, using reinforcement,
punishment, and others’ behaviour.

Cognitive-Developmental Development reflects Piaget: emphasizes the different stages of

children’s efforts to thinking that result from children’s changing
understand the world. theories of the world.
Contextual (socio-cultural) Development is influenced by Vygotsky: emphasizes the role of parents

immediate and more distant (and other adults) in conveying culture to
environments, which typically the next generation.
influence each other.
Blank Blank Bronfenbrenner: emphasizes the influences

of the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem.
Information-Processing Development is understood Information-processing theory: emphasizes

by analogy to the workings of changes in thinking that reflect changes in
a computer, with mental mental hardware and mental software. No
hardware and software as unified theory exists, but a variety of
well as input and output individual models have been proposed by a
processes. number of researchers.

Evolutionary Theory Development is influenced by Bjorklund and Pellegrini: emphasize

the process of evolution, which evolutionary theory as a possible unifying
favours characteristics of metatheory uniting various subfields within
children that have value to the developmental psychology as well as
survival of the species. psychology in general.
Blank Blank Martin Smith: emphasizes the survival value

of relationships between grandparents and
grandchildren.
Developmental Developmental outcome is Mash and Wolfe: emphasize dynamic

Psychopathology shaped by many different transformation throughout the lifespan and
variables, including both focus on how abnormal development can
biological-genetic and occur.
environmental factors.

Summary

Contributions From Neuroscience
Brain studies give hints on how we might

better apply each theory of development
Neuroscience: A field of study that

investigates the structure and mechanisms of
the brain and how they affect development.
magnetic resonance
Methods of studying the imaging (MRI)
brain event-related potential
(ERP)

Neuroscience and Theories of Development
Maturationist: Changes
may “grow out of” or “grow
in the brain (due to into” some behaviors
growth) affect behaviors
Behaviorist: Reward children differ according to

the types of rewards that
center in the brain activate their brains
Psychoanalytic: Brain regions correspond to

some ideas about the id, ego, and superego

Neuroscience and Theories of Development
Cognitive-Developmental, Neo-Piagetian, Ecological Systems Theory

Sociocultural, and Information Processing
Theories
We can see the brain actively process new ideas and can Microsystem and macrosystem influences can threaten brain
witness the ways brain regions change and grow as a result development (poverty, government cuts)

Modules
1.1 Theories of Child Development
1.2 Themes in Child-Development Research

Module 1.2 Themes in Child-Development Research
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
9. Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be

predicted from early life.
10. Understand how heredity and environment influence
development.
11. Specify what role children have in their own
development.
12. State how development in different domains is
connected.

Early Development is Related to Later
Development
• Predictability of development
• Continuous versus Non-Continuous

Development is Jointly Influenced by
Heredity and Environment
Nature-Nurture Issue
Active-Passive Child

Conclusions
Growth in different Developmental

Domains are Connected
Continuity
General themes are Nature and nurture
connected through Active child
Connections

Theories of Development - Ch01

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Children: A

Child Development: Theories and Themes

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1-1

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1-2

Describe Describe Canada’s unique contribution to developmental research.

State State the major tenets of the biological perspective.

Explain Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.

Identify Identify the focus of learning theories.

Describe Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children’s thinking.

Name Name the main points of the contextual approach.

Explain Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1-3

• An organized set of ideas designed to explain and make predictions

• Child development theory : collection of integrated beliefs about

Jean-Jacques Rosseau: (French, 1712-

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1-5

Strong history in developmental research

Access to historical information through Dr.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1-6

Maturational theory (Gessell)

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1-7

Research support for this theory:

• Development of some skills in fixed order (milestones)

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1-8

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1-9

• Focus is exclusively on personality/emotional development

• Underlined the importance of early experiences and the importance of attachment

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 10

• Individual’s instinct vs. societal norms

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 11

• Ego: Rational part of the mind

• Superego: Part of the mind that

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 12

Erik Erickson (1902-1994)

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Blank Freud: Psychosexual Stages Erikson: Psychosocial Stages

Age Stage Task Stage Task

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Blank Freud: Psychosexual Stages Erikson: Psychosocial Stages

Age Stage Task Stage Task

Young adulthood Blank Blank Intimacy vs. isolation To commit to another in a

Middle adulthood Blank Blank Generativity vs. To contribute to younger

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 16

**Fixation: Arrested development at a particular

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 18

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 19

• «Human traits are acquired through experiences within the

• Adults can purposefully shape desired learning and behavior

• Prominent theorists: Watson, Skinner, Bandura

• Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 21

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 22

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 23

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 24

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• pairing neutral event with something pleasurable or

Operant conditioning (Skinner)

• shaping behavior through reward (breaking into small

Social learning (Bandura)

• modeling desired behaviors that children will imitate

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 1 - 27