WORD FORMATION

IN THE ENGLISH AND

UKRAINIAN LANGUAGES
Lecture 6
 Plan
1. Word-formation and other ways of nomination in Modern English.
2. Two levels of morphological analysis.
2.1. Principles of morphemic analysis and its basic units.
2.2. Derivational analysis and basic units of derivational system.
3. Affixation. Classification of affixes.
 1. Word-formation and other ways of nomination in
Modern English.
Nominative function is the function of giving names to things, objects; it is
called nomination, i.e. a word is a nominative unit.
Creation of new words (word-formation) is a patterned
way of making new words out of the material existing in
the language.

E.g., bridge-builder, neocolonialism, wage-freeze,

minicar, writer.
 2. Two levels of morphological analysis.

In Modern linguistics there are two levels of approach to the study of morphological structure of
words:
 the level of morphemic analysis (i.e. segmentation of a word into morphemes, the number and
type of these morphemes);
 and the level of derivational analysis (i.e. derivational pattern after which the word has been
built).

 en/courage – en/courage/ment – the number of morphemes is 2 and 3, the morphological structure of

these words is different;
 en/courage/ment - courage/ous/ly – the number of morphemes is the same, but the nature is different: pf –
root – sf, R – sf – sf.
 en/courage/ment – un/employ/ment – the number and the nature of morphemes is the same
2.1. Principles of morphemic analysis and its basic
units.

The basic unit of the morphemic level is the morpheme – the smallest indivisible
two-facet language unit.

Two-facet here means an association of a certain meaning with a certain sound-

form.

Morphemes may be classified from

a) the semantic point of view,
b) the structural point of view.
Semantically morphemes fall into two classes:
 root-morphemes - morphemes in which the lexical meaning is
concentrated, i.e. it's the lexical nucleus of the word. E.g., teach – in
teach, teacher, teaching.
 affixational morphemes that are subdivided
 according to their position
 into prefixes, suffixes and infixes
 according to their function and meaning
 into derivational and functional affixes.
A prefix precedes the root-morpheme.
A suffix follows it.
An infix is an affix placed within the word, like -n- in stand.
Functional affixes serve to convey grammatical meaning, they build
different forms of one and the same word, e.g., near, nearer, nearest; son,
son's, sons, sons’.
Derivational affixes form different words with different lexical and lexico-
grammatical meaning, e.g., foolish, foolishly, foolishness.
Derivational and functional morphemes may happen to be identical in sound
form, but they are substantially different in meaning and function.
E.g., unwanted, “-ed” is not a functional affix as in played, studied, but
derivational.
Structurally morphemes fall into three types:
■ A free-morpheme is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-form
(the stem is the part of the word which remains unchangeable throughout the
paradigm). A great many root-morphemes are free, that is those root morphemes
that coincide with the stem of the word, e.g., friendship.
■ A bound-morpheme exists only as a part of a word. Affixes are usually
considered to be bound-morphemes (-ness, -ize, -ship, dis-, de-), but many root-
morphemes, especially those of Greek or Romanic origin, are bound morphemes,
e.g., conceive, theoretical, barbarism.
■ Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes are those that can function both as an affix
and as a free morpheme, e.g., well, half in well-known, to feel well, half-done,
half an hour.
The relationship between the two classes of morphemes discussed above can be
graphically presented in the following diagram:
 The method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents
This method is based on a binary principle which means that we divide the word into two
parts at a time. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate
Constituents (ICs). Each IC at the next stage of analysis is in its turn broken into two
smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents
incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. They are referred to as Ultimate Constituents
(UCs). The procedure of segmenting a word into its UC morphemes may be presented with
the help of a box-like diagram:
According to the number of morphemes words are classified into:
 Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root morpheme, e.g., small, dog,
make, give.
 Polymorphic words according to the number of root-morphemes are classified into
two subgroups:
 monoradical (or one-root words)
 polyradical words, i.e. words which consist of two or more roots.
Monoradical words fall into two subtypes:
1) radical-suffixal words, i.e. words that consist of one root-morpheme and one or
more suffixal morphemes, e.g., acceptable, acceptability, blackish, etc.;
2) radical-prefixal words, i.e. words that consist of one root-morpheme and a prefixal
morpheme, e.g., outdo, rewrite;
3) 3) prefixo-radical-suffixal, i.e. words which consist of one root, a prefixal and a
suffixal morphemes, e.g. disagreeable, misinterpretation, etc.
Polyradical words fall into:
1) polyradical words which consist of two or more roots with no affixations
morphemes, e.g., bookshelf, lamp-shade, etc.;
2) words which contain at least two roots and one or more affixational
morphemes, e.g., safety-pin, light-mindedness, wedding-pie, class-
consciousness, etc.
 2.2. Derivational analysis and basic units of derivational system.

Derivationally all words form two structural classes:

1. simple, or non-derived words;
2. complex words or derivatives.
Non-derived are words which cannot be segmented into ICs. Morphemically it may be monomorphic
when its stem coincides with the free root-morpheme, e.g., hand, come, blue, etc., or polymorphic when
it is a sequence of bound morphemes, e.g., anxious, theory, public, etc.
Derivatives are secondary, motivated units, made up as a rule of two ICs, e.g., friendliness,
schoolmasterish, etc. The ICs are brought together according to specific rules of order and arrangement
preconditioned by the system of the language. It follows that all derivatives are marked by the fixed
order of their ICs.
The aim of derivational analysis is to study the nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word.
The basic elementary units of the derivative structure of words are: derivational bases, derivational
affixes and derivation patterns.
A derivational base is the part of the word to which another base or an affix is added to make up a new
word.

Structurally derivational bases fall into three classes:

1) bases that coincide with morphological stems, e.g., duti/ful, dutiful/ly; day-dream, day-dream/er;
2) bases that coincide with word-forms, e.g., un/smiling, un/known;
3) bases the coincide with word-groups of different degrees of stability, e.g., second-rate/ness, flat-
waist/ed, etc.

Functionally, the morphological stem is the part of the word which is the starting point for its forms,
the stem remains unchanged through its word-forms, e.g., filmstar (0), filmstar(s), filmstar('s),
filmstar(s’).

A derivational base is the starting point for different words, e.g. the nominal base hand gives rise to
nouns (hand-bag, handwriting, shorthand), to adjectives (handy), verbs (to hand).
Derivational affixes are ICs of numerous derivatives in all parts of speech.

Derivational affixes possess two basic functions:

1) stem-building which is common to all affixational morphemes: derivational and
non-derivational. E.g., "ic-" in public, comic, music;
2) word-building which is the function of building a lexical unit of a structural and
semantic type different from the one represented in the source unit, e.g., historic,
economic, classic.
A derivational pattern is a scheme on which words are made up.
The pattern consists of two parts: in the left-hand part we have the base and another base or and affix, and
in the right-hand part we have the resulting word.
im/person/a/liz/ation – pf + R + 3sf (morphological composition)
impersonalize / ation – v + sf = N (derivational pattern)
en/courage/ment – pf + R + sf (morph. pat.); V + sf = N (deriv. pat.)
un/employ/ment – pf + R + sf (morph. pat.); pf + n = N (deriv. pat.)
Morphemically they are the same, but derivationally they are different: the 1 st – suffixal formation, the 2nd –
prefixal formation.
The derivational bases, derivational affixes and derivational patterns are the micro units of the
derivational system of the English language; the macro units of this system are the derivational row of
words and the derivational cluster. These two units comprise words built on the same or different
derivational patterns.
to father father fatherhood fatherless fatherly

V N N A D

- mother - - -

- brother - - -

Vertically we have words with the same derivational element (n + less = A); these words are called a
derivational row (set): it is a group of words built on the same derivational pattern, the words possess
the identical affixal morpheme, the words have the same structural meaning, though each of them has
a meaning of its own (in the given example the common derivational meaning – devoid of smth
denoted by the base).
Horizontally we have words containing the same root and built on different patterns; these are the so-
called derivational clusters.
A derivational cluster (DC) is a complex unity of words possessing the same root-morpheme but
built on a number of patterns and characterized by specific organization.
 3. Affixation. Classification of affixes.

Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational

affixes to stems.
On the morphemic level every word formed by means of affixation has only one root-
morpheme, which is its semantic center and one or more derivational affixes.
For instance, the word displease has only one root-morpheme and one derivational
affix – the prefix dis- .
On the derivational level derived words comprise a primary stem, the stem being in
itself either a simple, a derived or a compound stem and a derivational affix.
For instance, violonist = n + -ist (a simple stem), friendliness = (n + -ly) + -ness (a
derived stem), chairmanship = (n + n) + -ship ( a compound stem).
Prefixation is the formation of new words with the help of prefixes (affixes which precede the root).
Prefixes may function in more than one part of speech, prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the stem, but
they seldom affect the lexico-grammatical meaning of the word, they don’t change the part of speech of the
word.
Prefixes may be classified from synchronical and diachronical approach.
Synchronically prefixes can be classified in different ways.
Semantically prefixes are classified according to the meaning they convey to the derived word. There are some
groups of prefixes:
■ Negative prefixes are prefixes of negative meaning such as: un-, in-, dis-, ir-, im-. E.g.: ungrateful,
incorrect, irreligious, immaterial. Prefix in- occurs in different phonetic shapes depending on initial sound
of the stem it is affixed to: il- (before [l]), ir- (before [r]), im- (before [p, m]), in- in all other cases, e.g.
illegal, irrational, improbable, immobile, inactive.
■ Prefixes denoting reversal of an action such as: un-, re-. E.g.: rewrite, unfasten.
■ Prefixes denoting order and time relation such as: fore-, pre-, post-, over- E.g.: foresee, pre-historic, post-
position, overspread.
■ Prefixes denoting locative relation such as: sub-, inter-, trans, super-. E.g.: subway, transformation,
superstructure.
■ Prefixes denoting pejoration such as: mis-, pseudo-. E.g.: misprint.
■ Prefixes denoting oppositions such as: contra-, anti-, counter-. E.g.: contradiction, antipode.
Stylistically prefixes may be classified into:
 Neutral prefixes occur in all styles of speech. E.g.: over-, un-, pre-, dis-, sub-, etc.
 Coloured prefixes are used only in particular style. E.g.: super- is peculiar to the style of scientific
prose.
The degree of productivity is shown by the number of words with this prefix. This is the ability of
prefixes to make new words. Productive prefixes can make new words in Modern English. E.g.: un-, in-,
re- etc. Unproductive prefixes don’t make new words. E.g.: be-, de-, arch-, co- etc.
Type of base to which prefixes are added. Some prefixes can combine with the stem of only one
part of speech.
 Denominal prefixes are used only with the stem of nouns: ex-, arch-, dys-, per-. E.g.: ex-president,
dysgarmony, archbishop.
 Deverbal prefixes are used only with the stem of verb: be-, de-, en-, out-, re-. E.g.: rewrite, belong.
 Deadjectival prefixes are used only with the stem of adjective: un-, ir-. E.g.: uneasy, irregular.
But there are some prefixes which are used with nouns, verbs, adjectives: co-, contra-, mis-, post-, pre-,
sub-, over- etc. E.g.: co-operate (verb), co-operation (noun), co-operative (adjective).
Class prefixes form. There are prefixes which can transpose parts of speech but they are
much fewer in number. Prefixes which form verbs: be- : belittle, befoul, belong; de- : decamp,
debus; en- : enfree, enlarge.
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes.
Suffixes usually modify the lexical meaning of stems and transfer words to a different part of speech.
Chains of suffixes occurring in derived words having two and more suffixal morphemes are sometimes
referred to in Lexicography as compound suffixes. Such is the case, for instance, with the suffixes: -
ably = -able + -ly (e.g. profitably, unreasonably); -ically = -ic + -al + -ly (e.g. musically, critically); -
ation = -ate + -ion (e.g. fascination, isolation) and some others.
There are different classifications of suffixes in linguistic literature, as suffixes may be divided into
several groups according to different principles.
■ The first principle of classification that, one might say, suggests itself, is the part of speech
formed:
 noun-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in nouns (e.g. –er, -dom, -ness, -ation, etc. cf.
Teacher, brightness, justification, etc.)
 adjective-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in adjectives (e.g. –able, -les, -ful, –ic, -ous, etc.
cf. Agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous)
 verb-suffixes, (e.g. –en, -fy, -ize, etc. cf. Satisfy, harmonize, etc.)
 adverb-suffixes (e.g. –ly, -ward, cf. Quickly, eastward, etc.)
A classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion of sense expressed by
the suffix.

Proceeding from this principle suffixes are classified into various groups within the
bound of a certain part of speech.

For instance, noun-suffixes fall into those denoting:

 the agent of verbal action (e.g., -er, -ant, etc cf. Baker, dancer, defendant).
 nationality (e.g. –an, -ian, -ese, etc. cf. Arabian, Russian Chinese, etc.).
 collectivity (e.g. –age, -dom, –ery (-ry), etc. cf. freightage, officialdom, peasantry,
etc.).
 diminutiveness (e.g. –i.e, -let, -ling, etc. cf. Birdie, cloudlet, wolfling, etc.).
The usage of diminutive in English, i.e. words describing small specimen of the things denoted by
corresponding primary words is rather restricted. Even those words that are usually called
“diminutive” are at the same time adjectives, i.e. they express the feeling with which the person or
thing described is regarded.
The diminutive suffixes: -ling, -let, (-et, -kin), -in, -ette, are not frequent.
 The suffix –ling has diminutive force in some names of a young animals: catling, duckling; and
young plants: oakling, seedling.
 Most personal nouns with the suffix –ling are expressive of law estimation or contempt, e.g.
dukeling, kingling.
 The suffix -let is more frequently added to names of things than to name of persons. Examples of
the former are: booklet, eyelet. Words in –let denoting people, e.g. princelet, kinglet, usually have
derogatory meaning, though less strongly than derivatives with the suffix –ling.
 The suffix –kin with diminutive or endearing force, is today used only a jocular formative with a
depreciative tingle, e.g. lordkin, boykin, etc. The suffix
 –ette is the French –ette, e.g. novelette, leaderette – short editorial paragraph; recent American
coinages are: kitchenette - miniature kitchen in modern flats.
Suffixes may also be classified into various groups according to a lexical-
grammatical character of the stem the suffix is usually added to.

Proceeding from this principle one may divide suffixes into:

 those added to verbal-stems, (e.g. –er, -ing, -ment, -able, etc. cf. Speaker, reading,
agreement, suitable, etc.);
 those added to a noun-stem (e.g. –less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc. cf. Handless,
childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc);
 those added to adjective-stem (e.g. –en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc. cf. Blacken, slowly,
reddish, brightness, etc.);
Classification of suffixes from the angle of stylistic reference.
Recent research has revealed that derivational affixes, suffixes in particular, are
characterized by quite a definite stylistic reference falling into two basic classes:
 those characterized by neutral stylistic reference such as: -able, -er, -ing;
 those having a certain stylistic value such as –oid, -(i)form, -aceous, -tron.

Suffixes with neutral stylistic reference may occur in words of different lexico-stylistic
layers. Cf. Agreeable/steerable (e.g. steerable spaceship), etc.

As for suffixes of the second class, they are restricted in use to quite definite lexico-
stylistic layers of words, in particular to terms, cf. Rhomboid, asteroid, crustaceous,
cyclotron, etc.
Suffixes are subdivided into monosemantic and polysemantic.
The noun-suffix –er is used to coin words denoting in particular
1) persons following some special trade or profession cf. Baker, driver, etc.,
2) persons doing a certain action at the moment in question, cf. Packer, chooser, etc.,
3) device, tool, implement, cf. Blotter, boiler, etc.

Many homonymic derivational suffixes can be found among those forming both different parts of
speech and the same part of speech. For instance the adverb-suffix –ly added to adjective-stems is
homonymous to the adjective-suffix –ly affixed to noun –stems, cf. Quickly, slowly, and lovely,
friendly.

Distinction should also be made between terminal and non-terminal suffixes. Terminal suffixes take
only the final position in a word, such as: the nounal suffixes –al (refusal, survival), -hood, -ness, -
ship, -kin, -let, -ling.
Non-terminal suffixes can be followed by other suffixes, e.g. lead-leader-leadership, love-lovely-
loveliness, etc.
In the Ukrainian language the suffixation is very productive way of word
formation.
Suffixes transfer the word to another part of speech. Usually it occurs in the noun and
adjective formation, rarely in verb and other part of speech formation.
досліджувати – дослідник
правда – правдивий
зима – зимувати

In some cases suffixes do not shift word to another part of speech.

злодій – злодюга
дід – дідуга
дівка – дівуля
In Ukrainian there is such kind of word-formation as the so called “zero
suffixation” – the formation of new word without adding derivational affix. It may
occur in:

Verbal nouns – виробити виріб, написати напис

Adjectival nouns - зеленийзелень, молодиймолодь
Some adjectives – золотозолотий, вдовавдовий
Some numerals - стосотий, п’ятьп’ятий
Some nouns- кумкума, онуконука
In Ukrainian besides prefixation and suffixation exist three more ways of word-formation. They are:
1. Postfixation is used to form verbs with the help of postfix –ся.
сушити – сушитися
лити – литися

2. Suffixation – postfixation is the formation of words by adding suffix and postfix to stems. Usually it
occurs in verb-formation from noun and adjective stems.
колос – колоситися
роса – роситися
гордий – гордитися

3. Prefixation – postfixation is the way of word – formation when prefix and postfix are added to the stem.
літати - злітатися
бігти - розбігтися
читати - вчитатися