SOCIOLOGY II

SESSIONS 11 & 12

Social Demography: Population

and Urbanization
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
BASIC CONCEPTS:

Learn about the most important concepts that

demographers use to understand world population growth
and the changes in cities.

URBAN SOCIOLOGY: SOME INFLUENTIAL THEORIES

Understand how theories of urbanism have placed

increasing emphasis on the influence of socioeconomic
factors on city life.

RECENT RESEARCH ON POPULATION, URBANIZATION, AND

THE ENVIRONMENT:

See how cities have changed as a result of industrialization

and urbanization. Recognize the challenges of urbanization
in the global south. Learn about the recent key
developments affecting cities and suburbs.
1 - SOCIAL
DEMOGRAPH
Y
Social Demography is the analysis of
how social and cultural factors are
related to population characteristics.
Its major focus is the impact of
social and cultural factors on
demographic features of society,
such as patterns of marriage and
childbearing, the age-structure of the
population, life-expectancy, and so
forth.

Social demography is a field that
examines the demographic aspects
of human populations and their
impact on various social phenomena.
It raises several important questions
that help researchers understand
population dynamics and societal
changes. Some of the main
questions raised by social
demography include:
What is the size and composition of the population? This question involves studying the total population size, its
distribution across different age groups, genders, ethnicities, and other characteristics.
What factors influence population growth and decline? Social demographers explore the factors that contribute to
changes in population size, such as birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, and fertility rates.
How does migration affect population and society? This question looks at the movement of people across regions and
countries and its impact on population distribution, cultural diversity, labor markets, and social integration.
How does population aging impact societies? As populations age, there are implications for social welfare systems,
healthcare, labor markets, and intergenerational relationships.
What are the implications of changing family structures? Social demography investigates shifts in family composition,
marriage rates, divorce rates, and the prevalence of single-parent households.
How do demographic trends influence education and the labor force? Understanding the age distribution of the population
and changes in educational attainment can provide insights into the future workforce and its skill levels.
How do population dynamics impact urbanization and regional development? The distribution of population across urban
and rural areas affects infrastructure, resources, and the overall development of regions.
What are the consequences of population density and overcrowding? Social demographers analyze the effects of high
population density on housing, public services, environment, and quality of life.
How does demographic diversity influence social cohesion and cultural change? Exploring the interaction of diverse
populations can shed light on social integration, intergroup relations, and cultural transformations.
What are the implications of demographic changes for public policy? Policymakers use social demographic insights to
design effective social welfare programs, healthcare systems, and immigration policies.
These questions are continually evolving as societal trends shift, and social demographers play a crucial role in providing
data-driven insights that can inform decision-making and address various challenges related to population dynamics.
THE POPULATION
GROWTH
It took nearly all of human history to add the first billion people to our planet, a number
that was reached only two centuries ago, in roughly 1800.

It took another 130 years (until 1930) to add the second billion; 30 years (until 1960) to
add the third billion; 15 years (until 1975) to add the fourth billion; 12 years (until 1987)
to add the fifth billion, and another 12 years (until 1999) to add the sixth billion.

By 2022 the human population had reached 8 billion people.

GIVEN PAST AND RECENT RATES OF EXPLODING POPULATION
GROWTH, WHAT DO YOU THINK IS THE MOST WIDELY
ACCEPTED OFFICIAL PREDICTION FOR THE GLOBAL
POPULATION IN 2050?

9-10 14-15 19-20 24-25 29-30

billion ? billion ? billion ? billion ? billion ?
DEMOGRAPHY
The study of population is referred to as demography. The term was invented about a
century and a half ago, at a time when nations were beginning to keep official statistics on
the nature and distribution of their populations.
Demography is concerned with measuring the size of populations, explaining their rise or
decline, and documenting the distribution of such populations both within and across
continents, nations. states, cities, and even neighborhoods.
Population patterns are governed by three factors: births, deaths, and migrations.
Demography is customarily treated as a branch of sociology, because the factors that
influence the level of births and deaths in a given group or society, and migrations of
population, are largely social and cultural.
CONCEPTS USED BY
DEMOGRAPHERS
Crude birthrates are expressed as the number of live births per year per 1,000 persons
in the population. Crude birthrate indicates the number of live births occurring during the
year, per 1,000 population estimated at midyear.
They are called 'crude' rates because of their very general character.
Crude birthrates do not tell us what proportions of a population are male or female or
what the age distribution of a population is (the relative proportions of young and old
people in the population).
A population with a high percentage of young women can be expected to have a much
higher birthrate than one in which older men predominate.
In India, for instance, the crude birthrate is 23 per 1,000; in Ethiopia it is 37 per 1,000
CONCEPTS USED BY
DEMOGRAPHERS
Fertility refers to how many live-born children the average woman has, A fertility rate is usually
calculated as the average number of births per 1,000 women of childbearing age. It is the average
number of live-born children produced by women of childbearing age in a particular society.

Fecundity means the number of children women are biologically capable of bearing. It is physically
possible for a normal woman to bear a child every year during the period when she is capable of
conception. It is a measure of the number of children that it is biologically possible for a
woman to produce.
There are variations in fecundity according to the age at which women reach puberty and
menopause, both of which differ between countries as well as between individuals. Although there
may be families in which a woman bears 20 or more children, fertility rates in practice are always
much lower than fecundity rates, because social and cultural factors limit breeding.
CONCEPTS USED BY
DEMOGRAPHERS
Crudedeath rates (also called "mortality rates') are cal-culated in
the same way as birthrates—the number of deaths per 1,000 of
the population per year.
Statistical measures representing the number of deaths that occur
annually in a given population per year.
CONCEPTS USED BY
DEMOGRAPHERS
Mortality: Like crude birthrates, crude death rates provide only a very
general index of mortality (the number of deaths in a population), and
can be very misleading.
For example, the number of deaths per 1,000 people can be higher for
industrial nations than for countries in the global south, despite
standards of health being better in industrial countries. This is because
industrial countries have a higher per-centage of older people, who are
more likely to die in a given year; the overall mortality rate can then be
higher even if the mortality rate at any given age is lower.
CONCEPTS USED BY
DEMOGRAPHERS
A particularly important specific death rate is the infant mortality
rate — the number of babies per 1,000 births in any year who die
before reaching age one. One of the key factors underlying the
population explosion has been the reduction in infant mortality
rates.
Declining rates of infant mortality are the most important influence
on increasing life expectancy — that is, the number of years the
average person can expect to live.
 2 - POPULATION
PYRAMIDS AND SOCIAL
AND CULTURAL FACTORS
IMPACTING DEMOGRAPHY
Overpopulation?

PA S S ENG ERS TRAVEL ON AN OV ERCR OWDED TRA IN IN THE EA S TER N IND IAN C IT Y OF PATNA. THE INDIAN R A ILR OAD ,
O NE OF THE WO RLD' S LAR GES T RAIL NE TWO RKS , S ERV ES MOR E THAN 13 M ILLION P EOP LE A YEAR A ND C O NTINUES
TO B E ON E OF TH E ONLY F OR M S OF AF F O RDAB LE T RANS P ORTATION AVAILAB L E TO THE M AJ OR ITY OF INDIANS .
Population Pyramid, India 1961 - 2031
 1914-2014: A century of change in
the French population pyramid

1 Shortfall of births due to the war of 1870

2 Exceptional infant mortality in 1911 due

to a summer heat wave

3 Military losses of the 1914-1918 war

4 Shortfall of births due to the 1914-1918

war (depleted cohorts)

5 Depleted cohorts reach childbearing age

6 Shortfall of births due to the war of

1939-1945

7 Start of baby boom

8 End of baby boom

THANK YOU FOR
YOUR ATTENTION
🙏
3 - POPULATION
AND
URBANIZATION
Urbanization results when cities grow in
population — perhaps partly through natural
increase, but mainly through migration from rural
areas by people in search of the economic
opportunities associated with urban life.

Scholars associated with the University of

Chicago from the 1920s to the 1940s — especially
Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, and Louis Wirth —
developed ideas that were for many years the
chief basis of theory and research in urban
sociology. Some important ideas, however, came
from outside universities — for example, in the
work of Jane Jacobs.
THE FIRST
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
The first industrial revolution
was the social and economic
change happening in 19th
century in Europe during
european countries’ transition
from an agricultural society to
modern industrial societies
unsing factories and relying on
complex machinery rather than
tools.

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CULTURAL
ASPECTS OF THE
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
Industrial Revolution, in modern history, is the process of change from an agrarian
and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing.
These technological changes introduced novel ways of working and living and
fundamentally transformed society. This process began in Britain in the 18th century
and from there spread to other parts of the world.

Industrialization is described as the process of connection with machinery factories

and workers, as well as change in wages, hours, and working conditions.

The industrial revolution was revolutionary in its transformation of traditional

societies, scarcely any part of the old order escaped its impact.

Its cultural dimension meant inner discipline and a tightening up of the moral code
through either the abolition or drastic alteration of customs, traditions, and practices
that interfered with productive labor.

More than ever before, life became oriented toward work.

Citizens would be self-reliant, hard-working, and sober, obedient to their superiors,

attentive to their labors, and self-disciplined in all their pursuits.

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INDUSTRIALIZA
TION
Industrialization is the process by which societies are
transformed from dependence on agriculture and
handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and
related industries. This process occurred first during the
Industrial Revolution in Britain between 1760 and 1850,
and was soon repeated throughout Western Europe. By the
mid-nineteenth century, industrialization was well under way
in the United States. Massive economic, technological, and
social changes occurred as machine technology and the
factory system shifted the economic base of these nations
from agriculture to manufacturing: textiles, iron smelting,
and related industries. Many people who had labored on the
land were forced to leave their tightly knit rural com-
munities and sacrifice well-defined social relationships to
seek employment as factory workers in the emerging cities,
which became the centers of industrial work.
URBANIZAT
ION
Urbanization is the process by which an increasing
proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural
areas. Although cities existed long before the Industrial
Revolution, the development of the factory system led to a
rapid increase in both the number of cities and the size of
their populations. People from very diverse backgrounds
worked together in the same factory. At the same time,
many people shifted from being producers to being
consumers. For example, families living in the cities had to
buy food with their wages because they could no longer
grow their own crops to eat or barter for other resources.
Similarly, people had to pay rent for their lodging because
they could no longer exchange their services for shelter.
These living and working conditions led to the development
of new social problems: inadequate housing, crowding,
unsanitary conditions, poverty, pollution, and crime. Wages
were so low that entire families—including very young
children—were forced to work, often under hazardous
conditions and with no job security. As these conditions
became more visible, a new breed of social thinkers tried to
understand why and how society was changing.
TRANSFORMATION OF
THE SOCIETY IN XIX
CENTURY THROUGH
THE SOCIAL DIVISION
OF LABOR

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 WOMEN AND MEN
LABOR IN INDUSTRIES
AND FACTORIES

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CHILD
LABOR
Children were used in industries as
they were cheap labor

Their small fingers could manipulate

parts of machines more easily

They were less paid than adults

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As the Industrial Revolution swept through
Europe beginning in the nineteenth century,
children being employed in factories became
increasingly common. Social thinkers soon
began to explore such new social problems
brought about by industrialization:
Rise of capitalism
Class struggle
Alienation
Economic inequalities
Social change
Women and child labor
Social division of labor

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 HOW ABOUT THE IMPACT OF
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TODAY?
2 - NEW
CHALLENGE
S FOR How about social
conditions of workers?
How about the social and
natural envirronment?

SOCIAL
SCIENCES
AND
GOVERNME
NTS How about new
technologies?
How about artificial
intelligence?
THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION AND ITS NEW
CHALLENGES

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NEW CHALLENGES CREATED BY
THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
THE RISE OF
GLOBAL CITIES
Globalization is transforming cities into vital
hubs within the global economy.
Urban centers have become critical in
coordinating information flows, managing
business activities, and innovating new
services and technologies.
There has been a simultaneous dispersion
and concentration of activity and power
within a set of cities around the globe.
THE RISE OF GLOBAL
CITIES
The role of cities in the new global order has been attracting a great
deal of attention from sociologists, Globalization is often thought of
in terms of a duality between the national level and the global, yet it
is the largest cities of the world that make up the main circuits
through which globalization occurs
THE RISE OF GLOBAL
CITIES
Saskia Sassen has been one of the leading contributors to theoretical debates on cities and globalization. She uses the term global city
to refer to urban centers that are home to the headquarters of large, transnational corporations and a super­abundance of financial,
technological, and consulting services. In The Global City (DV, Sassen bases her work on the study of three such cities! New York,
London, and Tokyo. The con­temporary development of the world economy, she argues, has created a novel strategic role for major
cities. Most such cit­ies have long been centers of international trade, but they now have four new traits:
1. They have developed into command posts—centers of direction and policy making—for the global economy.
2. They are the key locations for financial and specialized service firms, which have become more important than
manufacturing in influencing economic development.
3. They are the sites of production and innovation in these newly expanded industries.
4. They are markets in which the products" of financial and service industries are bought, sold, or otherwise disposed of.
New York, London, and Tokyo have very different histories, yet we can trace comparable changes in their nature over the
past two or three decades.
TOLERANCE
DRIVES ECONOMIC
GROWTH AND
PROSPERITY
Richard Florida streesed in his
book The Rise of the Creative
Class, the idea that tolerance
drive economic growth.
The more tolerant is a city or
society, the more likely it will
grow and innovate.
CHALLENGES OF URBANIZATION
IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH
ECONOMIC
CHALLENGES
Urbanization carries both positive and negative
economic consequences. Urbanization is driven,
in part, by the concentration of both employment
and investment opportunities in cities. According
to some estimates, roughly 80 percent of the
world's gross domestic product (GDP) is
generated by urban areas. As cities draw more
jobs and businesses, they become magnets for
migrants seeking better opportunities and pro-vide
a fertile setting for entrepreneurs to generate new
innovations and use technology in productive
ways. For example, in countries of the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), urban residents file more
than 81 percent of patents (OECD, 2008).
ECONOMIC
CHALLENGES
Yet as a growing number of unskilled and agricultural workers
migrate to urban centers, the formal economy often struggles to
absorb the influx into the workforce. In most cities in the global
south, it is the informal economy that allows those who cannot
find formal work to make ends meet. From casual work in
manufacturing and construction to small-scale trading activities,
the unregulated informal sector offers earning opportunities to
poor or unskilled workers.
ENVIRONMENTA
L CHALLENGES
The rapidly expanding urban areas in the
global south differ dramatically from cities in
the industrialized world. Although cities
everywhere are faced with environmental
problems, those in the global south are
confronted by particularly severe risks,
Pollution, housing shortages, inadequate
sanitation, and unsafe water supplies are
chronic problems for cities in less
industrialized countries.
ENVIRONMENTAL
CHALLENGES
Housing is one of the most acute problems in many urban areas. Cities such
as Calcutta, India, and Sao Paulo, Brazil, are massively congested; the rate of
internal migration is much too high for the provision of permanent housing.
Migrants crowd into squatters' zones that mushroom around the edges of
cities. In urban areas in the West, newcomers are most likely to settle close
to the central parts of the city, but the reverse tends to happen in the global
south, where migrants populate what has been called the "septic fringe” of
the urban areas. Shanty dwellings made of burlap or cardboard are set up
around the edges of the city wherever there is a little space.
SOCIAL CHALLENGES
A vast social and economic divide between the haves and the have-nots increasingly
distinguishes urban areas (inequalities), with poor people bearing the brunt of the negative
aspects of urbanization.
Overall, urban residents, even in the global south, tend to fare better than rural dwellers
along a host of outcomes, including infant and child mortality rates, adult health and
mortality, and access to effective birth control and reproductive health services.
Better urban public infrastructure, higher levels of maternal education, and better access to
health care in cities are responsible for these health advantages. However, for poor urban
dwellers, especially in the global south, neighborhoods are overcrowded and social programs
under-resourced, Poverty is widespread, and existing social services cannot meet the
demands for health care, family planning advice, education, and training.
SOCIAL CHALLENGES
Because of stark income inequalities in urban areas, especially in
the global south, the plight of the urban poor is growing worse, and
the size of the urban poor population is growing more rapidly than
the overall urban population.
Because of high housing costs, poor people in cities often have little
choice but to live in overcrowded slums, where sanitation and water
facilities are inadequate.
THANK YOU FOR
YOUR ATTENTION
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