Lesson Objectives:

Rhetorical Focus:
Paragraph Structure and Organization
• Topic Sentence
• Supporting Sentences
• Concluding Sentence
Language Focus:
Compound Sentences
• Structure, Punctuation
Sentence Structure Problems
• Run-on Sentences and Comma Splices
 Rhetorical Focus

Paragraph Structure
All paragraphs have
• a topic sentence
• supporting sentences
• a concluding sentence (it is customary for stand –
alone paragraphs and optional for body paragraphs
of an essay.)
 The Topic Sentence

Topic Controlling idea

My friend is an honest person.
My friend is the funniest person I know.
My friend has a terribly dangerous job.
 Writing Topic Sentences

Activity 1. Use the phrases below to write a topic sentence

with a controlling idea.
Topic - Hiking
Topic Sentence - Hiking is the best way to explore
nature closely.
1. Taking a computer course
2. Effective time management
3. Text messaging
4. Television commercials
 Writing Topic Sentences

Activity 2. For the following paragraph choose the sentence from the list
below that would make the best topic sentence.
---------------------------------------------------------------. Many children begin
learning to play football when they are very young. You can often see
them playing at school or in the streets around their houses. At secondary
school, students may play football in a team and compete in
championships. If a player is very good, he might go on to play for a
professional team. People in my country love watching football on
television and also go to matches whenever they can. Many people have a
favourite team or player, and everyone loves to talk about matches and
competitions. Football is really like a national sport in my country.
1. I love playing football, and I hope I can become a professional player one
day.
2. There are many popular sports in my country, but the most popular sport
Writing Supporting Sentences

Supporting sentences (SS) explain or prove the topic sentence

by adding information about the topic and the controlling
idea. SS can include definitions, explanations, examples,
statistics, and quotations.
Activity 3. Write two supporting sentences for each of the
following topic sentences.
1.There are activities in our central park for family members of
all ages.
2. There are many ways to show respect to older people.
3. There are certain characteristics that I always take into
account when choosing a good restaurant to dine at with my
family.
Activity 4. Identifying topic sentences and supporting sentences.
For each set of sentences write TS next to the topic sentence and write SS next to the
supporting sentences.

1. SS a) Mosquitoes are attracted to heat.

SS b) Mosquitoes will fly several miles to find food.
SS c) Only the female mosquito bites.
TS d) Mosquitoes are interesting insects.

2. --- a) I like the way people decorate their homes and stores.
--- b) I really like the winter holidays.
--- c) I enjoy going shopping before Christmas.
---d) I enjoy the parties and celebrations of the winter
holiday.
Activity 4.

3. ---a) Instead of scales sharks have a rough sandpaper-

like skin which protects them from parasites and
reduces water resistance.
---b) Another unique feature of sharks is their
skeletons: instead of bones they have cartilage, a type
of connective tissue that allows for greater flexibility.
---c) Sharks are a type of fish found in every ocean of
the world.
---d) As apex predators, sharks have good eyesight
and exceptionally sensitive smell.
 Writing Concluding Sentences

Activity 5. Read the following paragraph and a) identify the

topic sentence, b) decide on the type of the support c) write
an appropriate concluding sentence.
“ A stitch in time saves nine.” My mother, who likes
sewing, used this simple saying to teach me the value of
working on problems when they are still small. Originally,
the saying referred to sewing: if you have a small hole in a
shirt, you can repair it with one stitch. But if you wait, the
hole will get larger, and it will take you nine stitches.
 Concluding
Sentence. For each
set of sentences
write SS next to the
supporting
1. TS The best waysentences and CS is by walking.
to see Yerevan
next to the
--- a) When youconcluding
explore Yerevan on foot, you
experience all the city has to offer.
sentence.
--- b) When you walk, you experience the different
smells of the restaurants, the plants and trees.
--- c) You can stop and look in the shop windows or
sit on a bench for a short while and enjoy the view.
--- d) In a car or on a bus, you can not stop easily if
you see something interesting because parking can
sometimes be a problem.
Activity 6.
2. TS My paper is late because something happened
to my computer.
---a) I almost finished writing my paper, and I was
checking it for errors.
---b) Suddenly, my computer screen went black, and
the power was gone.
---c) The accident made me lose many hours of
work, so I could not submit my essay in time.
---d) Later I learned that a squirrel got on the
power line and disrupted the electricity.
Activity 7.Read the following topic sentences and decide
which of the sentences below(a-d) support them?

1. Tea and coffee are very different from each other.

a. Coffee has more caffeine than tea does.
b. Coffee and tea both have caffeine.
c. People enjoy tea and coffee during social occasions.
d. Tea is much more common around the world than coffee is.
2. It is easy to get a sports injury.
a. Many people enjoy sports.
b. Runners often have problems with their knees and ankles.
c. Basketball players can break their fingers or get knocked over
by other players.
d. Many people make the simple mistake of joining a gym, and
then they never go there to exercise.
Activity 7.

3.Some people strongly agree that we should return to more

natural methods of food production, such as organic farming,
even if this means that we produce food less efficiently. They
believe this because…
a. Naturally produced food tastes better than food produced
using more artificial methods.
b. More people will need to be employed on farms ,and fewer
people will be available to do work that will help the country
develop economically.
c. Organically produced food is no more nutritious than food
produced using pesticides and artificial fertilisers.
d. Man-made chemicals used in modern methods of food
production could be harmful to human health.
Language Focus:

Compound Sentences
• Structure, Punctuation
Sentence Structure Problems
• Run-on Sentences and Comma Splices
 Compound Sentences

A Compound Sentence is a type of a composite

sentence consisting of two or more independent
clauses joined together.
There are three main ways of joining independent clauses(at least two) in a compound
sentence:

1. With a semicolon (;)

Independent Clause ; Independent Clause
e.g. The practice of yoga strengthens the body and promotes
flexibility; it also strengthens the mind and refreshes the soul.
2. With a coordinator (and, for, but, so,etc.)
Independent Clause, coordinator Independent Clause
e.g. The practice of yoga strengthens the body, promotes flexibility,
and it also strengthens the mind and refreshes the soul.
3. With a conjunctive adverb (also, furthermore, similarly, etc.)
Independent Clause; conjunctive adverb, Independent Clause
e.g. The practice of yoga strengthens the body and promotes
flexibility; moreover, it strengthens the mind and refreshes the
soul.
1.Compound Sentences with Semicolons
Remember: Two independent clauses can be joined with a
semicolon only when they are closely related in meaning. If
not, write them as two simple sentences, each ending with
a full stop.
Activity 1. Form compound sentences by joining simple sentences
with a semicolon if they are closely related in meaning.

1. I love walking on the beach. I hope to live close to the ocean some
day.
2. I am diabetic. I can’t eat sweets.
3. Fuel has become more expensive lately. Smaller cars use less fuel.
4. The artist preferred to paint in oils. He did not like water colors.
5. The grading system in schools and colleges should be abolished.
Education in a free society teaches children how to think.
2.Compound Sentences with Coordinating conjunctions or coordinators

FAN BOYS conjunctions

F - for O – or
A - and Y - yet
N - nor S - so
B - but
Coordinators (Coordinating Conjunctions)

To add a reason
for e.g. Japanese people live longer than most other
nationalities, for they eat healthy food.
To add a similar; equal idea
and e.g. They eat a lot of fish and vegetables, and they eat
lightly.
To add a negative equal idea
nor e.g. They do not eat much red meat, nor do they eat
many dairy products.
 Coordinators (Coordinating Conjunctions)

To add an opposite idea

but e.g. Diet is one factor in how long people live, but it is not
the only factor.
To add an alternative possibility
or e.g. However, people should limit the amount of animal fat in
their diets, or they risk getting heart disease.
To add an unexpected or surprising continuation
yet e.g. Cigarette smoking is a factor in longevity, yet Japanese
and other long-lived Asians have a very high rate of tobacco
use.
To add an expected result
so e.g. Doctors say that stress is another longevity factor, so try
to avoid stress if you wish to live a longer life.
Activity 2. Fill in the gaps with appropriate
coordinators ( and, for, so, nor, yet, but, or)
1. He was very hungry, …he ate all the cake.
2. I eat cakes,… I never eat biscuits; I don’t like them.
3. He is overweight,… he eats too many cakes and biscuits.
4. His favourite snacks are cakes,…he always has it for
breakfast.
5. He doesn’t eat cakes,…does he eat biscuits.
6. Don’t eat too many cakes and biscuits,…you will put on
weight.
7. He is overweight and feels terrible,…he continues to eat
lots of cakes and biscuits.
 3. Compound Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs

FAN BOYS conjunctions can easily be substituted by appropriate

conjunctive adverbs. For example, the coordinator “and” can be
replaced by the following conjunctive adverbs:
Independent Clause ; also, Independent Clause.
besides,
in addition,
furthermore,
moreover,
what’s more,
likewise,
equally,
similarly,
Conjunctive Adverbs

The coordinator “yet” can be substituted by the

following conjunctive adverbs:
Independent Clause; however, Independent Clause
nevertheless
nonetheless
still
e.g. The cost of attending the university is low;
however/nevertheless/nonetheless/still, many
students need financial support.
 Conjunctive Adverbs

Instead of coordinating conjunction “so” you can use the

following conjunctive adverbs:
Independent Clause; accordingly, Independent Clause
consequently
as a consequence
as a result
hence
therefore
thus
e.g. Native and nonnative English speakers have different
needs; accordingly/consequently/hence/therefore/thus,
most schools provide separate English classes for each group.
Conjunctive Adverbs

The coordinator “or” can be substituted by the

conjunctive adverb “otherwise”.
Independent Clause; otherwise, Independent Clause

e.g. You must fasten the boat to that pole; otherwise,

the current will carry it away.
Conjunctive Adverbs

The coordinator “but” can be substituted by the following

conjunctive adverbs:

Independent Clause; on the other hand, Independent Clause

in contrast

e.g. Tuition at a community college is low; on the other

hand/in contrast, tuition at private schools is high.
Activity 3. Fill in the gaps with appropriate conjunctive
adverbs(otherwise/therefore/nevertheless/moreover/for example/on
the other hand)

1. I argued with Dan for hours;…, I threatened to tell his

parents about what he had done.
2. He didn’t prepare well for mathematics;…,he failed the
exam.
3. George earns a lot of money;…, he is a very stingy person.
4. You must concentrate on your studies;…,you will fail the
class.
5. My car payments are high;…,I really enjoy driving such a nice
vehicle.
6. You should pack all the things you will need;…,a sleeping
bag will keep you warm.
Sentence Structure Problems
Run-on Sentences and Comma Splices

A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more

independent clauses are written with no punctuation. A
similar error happens when two independent clauses are
incorrectly joined by a comma without a coordinating
conjunction. Such kind of error is called a comma splice.

e.g. Kelly likes to cook she makes chicken every day. (run-on)
Kelly likes to cook, she makes chicken every day.(comma
splice)
How to fix the sentences?
Both run-on sentences and comma splices can be corrected in
the same way. These ways are:
1. Add a period:
Kelly likes to cook. She makes chicken every day.
2. Add a semicolon:
Kelly likes to cook; she makes chicken every day.
3. Add a coordinator or a conjunctive adverb
Kelly likes to cook, and/so she makes chicken every day.
Kelly likes to cook; therefore, she makes chicken every day.
4. Add a subordinator (e.g. as, because, since, etc.)
Since/ Because Kelly likes to cook she makes chicken every
day.
Activity 4. Correct the following run-on/comma splice
sentences by using one of the possible four ways.

1. I got up late this morning, I didn’t have time for

breakfast.
2. My mom is coming soon I should finish my
homework.
3. When I get older I want to have a big family I like
big families.
4. The girls played basketball, the boys played tennis.
5. Americans shake hands when they meet the
Japanese bow.
6. My car broke down, I need to buy a new one.