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The stages through which a cell passes

from one cell division to the next
constitute the cell cycle

The cell cycle is divided into two major

phases: the M phase or mitotic phase
and the interphase
INTERPHASE

G1 S

G2

Interphase is divided
into G1, S and G2 phases
MITOSIS (M PHASE)
The M phase occupies Interphase occupies
only a small portion the largest portion
of the cycle, lasting of the cycle
from about 30 mins
to one hour

G1 S

M G2

The M phase consists of the process of

mitosis (separation of the chromosomes)
together with cytokinesis (physical
division of the entire cell into two
daughter cells)
 G1 S
- First Growth Phase: DNA replication
The cell grows and takes place
new organelles and
proteins are G2
manufactured - Second
Growth Phase:
The cell grows
M and prepares
for mitosis

During interphase, preparations

for mitosis take place
G1 is the most variable The rapidly dividing
of all the phases epithelial cells lining the
human intestine remain
in the G1 phase for only
about 2 hours

Some cells, such as nerve Slowly dividing liver cells may

and muscle cells never divide; take many months to move
they may be considered to be through G1 to the S phase
permanently in the G1 phase
and never enter the S phase
The rapidly dividing epithelial
cells lining the human intestine
remain in the G1 phase for
only about 2 hours
These slowly dividing liver cells
may take many months to move
through G1 to the S phase
Cells, such as nerve and muscle cells never divide;
they may be considered to be permanently in the
G1 phase and never enter the S phase
 The multiplication of cells is a closely regulated process
Cell division is under genetic control, and it is known that
there are specific genes which code for proteins that
‘switch on’ and ‘switch off’ the synthetic process
Cancer is a disease that results from uncontrolled cell divisions
Normal cells become transformed into cancer cells when the genes
that control cell division mutate and become ONCOGENES
Environmental cancer-causing agents, known as
carcinogens, play a part in causing the alteration of
DNA structure that leads to oncogene formation
Known carcinogens include ultraviolet
radiation, cigarette smoke and X-rays
Scanning electron micrograph of
dividing cancer cells
 When a normal body cell mutates it may divide to produce a
clone of cells that form a tumour
mutation mitosis

normal mutated
body cell body cell

Many such tumours are found to be BENIGN and do not spread from
their site of origin – they may nevertheless compress and damage adjacent tissues
Malignant, cancerous tumours may spread from their site of origin
These tumours develop their own blood and lymph supply which can transport
malignant cells from the tumour to other sites in the body
these cells invade
malignant cancer other body regions
cells carried to to form secondary
other body sites cancers
This is called
metastasis
malignant tumour secondary
tumour
Plant roots grow by mitotic division of the cells at the root tip
Onion root tips are an ideal source of material for
observing the stages of mitosis
• A scalpel is used to cut about 4 mm from the
tip of the growing onion root
• Acetic acid is added to the tip on a watch glass
and warmed gently for about 5 minutes; the
acid helps to macerate the cells
• The root tip is transferred to a slide where two
or three drops of aceto-orcein stain are added;
this stain is taken up by the chromosomes and
makes them more visible as they stain red
• The tip is gently broken up with a mounted
needle and the cells are spread across the slide
• A coverslip is placed over the root preparation
and gently squashed
• The slide is examined for stages of mitosis
using an optical microscope
 The different phases of the cell cycle last for different periods of time
An onion root slide was examined for the different stages of the cell cycle,
and the number of cells in each phase was recorded
The percentage of cells in each stage is used as a measure of the
percentage of time that the cells spend in each phase of the cell cycle
Calculate the percentage of cells (to the nearest whole number) in each stage
Cell %
Stage of Cell Cycle Number of Cells (to nearest whole
number)
Interphase 138
Prophase 56
Metaphase 6
Anaphase 2
Telophase 7
Total 209
Draw a bar chart to display your results and comment on your findings
Percentage of cells (to the nearest whole number) in each stage
Cell %
Stage of Cell Cycle Number of Cells (to nearest whole
number)
Interphase 138 66
Prophase 56 27
Metaphase 6 3
Anaphase 2 1
Telophase 7 3
Total 209 100

Interphase is the longest stage of the cell

cycle with anaphase being the shortest
An extended investigation into the time spent by onion cells
in different stages of the cell cycle provided additional data
relating to the different phases of interphase

Percentage of time in
Stage of Cell Cycle
different stages

G1 Phase 41.6

G2 Phase 16.7

S Phase 37.5

Mitosis (M) 4.2

Construct a pie chart from these results

and comment on the data
 Meiosis is another form of cell division that is associated
with reproduction in many organisms
In humans, meiosis is responsible for the
formation of the reproductive cells or gametes
In humans, these are the egg and sperm cells
Whereas most body cells have a complement of
23 pairs of chromosomes, human gametes possess
only 23 single chromosomes. A gamete’s complement of
23 single chromosomes is constituted by one chromosome
taken from each of the 23 pairs of chromosomes EGG
Within the human ovaries and testes, gametes are CELL
produced by meiosis and this process halves the
chromosome number
Human body cells are DIPLOID as they possess
two sets of chromosomes (23 pairs)
Human gametes are described as being HAPLOID as they
possess only one set of chromosomes (23 chromosomes)
If the gametes were diploid then the number
SPERM of chromosomes would double at every
CELL generation after fertilisation
 MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Diploid body
cell

The nucleus
divides twice

Two diploid daughter cells

Meiosis is important as it ensures
that, when the gametes fuse at
fertilisation, the normal diploid number
of chromosomes is maintained; meiosis
is also an important source of Four haploid, genetically different
genetic variation gametes are produced
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