Mad institute

petroleum department

Static and Strength

of Materials
2023- 2024
CONTENT:
• CHAPTER 1
Definitions and Concepts of Static
CHAPTER 2
The Resultant Force
CHAPTER 3
Strength of Materials
 Mad institute
petroleum department

CHAPTER (1)
Definitions and Concepts of Static

2023- 2024
Definitions and concepts of static
the definition of force
In physics, force is defined as any interaction that can change the
motion or shape of an object. It is a vector quantity, which means it
has both magnitude (size or strength) and direction. Force is
typically represented by the symbol "F" and is measured in units
called newton's (N).
Here are some key points about force:
1. Cause of Motion
2. Newton's Laws of Motion
3. Types of Forces
4. Force Diagrams
5. Net Force:
types of force:
Here are some common types of forces:
1. Gravity: Gravity is the force of attraction between objects with
mass. It is responsible for the weight of objects and the motion of
celestial bodies. On Earth, gravity pulls objects towards the center
of the planet, giving them weight and causing them to fall if not
supported.
2. Normal Force: The normal force is the force exerted by a surface to
support the weight of an object resting on it. It acts perpendicular to
the surface and prevents objects from sinking into or passing through
the surface.
3. Friction: Friction is a force that opposes the motion or attempted
motion of an object. It arises when two surfaces are in contact and sliding
against each other or when there is an attempt to slide them. Friction can
be useful, such as when walking or driving, but it can also be a hindrance,
as it converts some of the energy of motion into heat.
4. Applied Force: An applied force is a force that is exerted on an
object by a person, another object, or a machine. It can be a
pushing or pulling force and is typically applied directly to an
object.
5. Tension: Tension is a force that occurs when an object is pulled
or stretched by opposite forces acting along its length. It is
commonly experienced in stretched ropes, cables, or strings.
7. Electrostatic Force: Electrostatic force is the force of attraction or
repulsion between electrically charged objects. Like charges repel
each other, while opposite charges attract each other. It is
responsible for various phenomena, such as the attraction between
protons and electrons in atoms.
6. Spring Force: Spring force, also known as elastic force, is the
force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring. It is
proportional to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium
position and acts to restore the spring to its original length.
8. Magnetic Force: Magnetic force is the force exerted between
magnets or between a magnet and a magnetic material. It is
responsible for the motion of charged particles in magnetic
fields and is used in various applications, including electric
motors and magnetic levitation.
 principles of static and reactions :

The principles of statics, also known as the laws of equilibrium, are

fundamental concepts in physics that describe the behavior of
objects at rest or in a state of equilibrium. These principles are
based on Isaac Newton's laws of motion and are essential for
understanding the stability and balance of structures and objects.
Here are the key principles of statics:

1. First Principle (Principle of Transmissibility): This principle states

that a force can be applied at any point along its line of action
without changing its external effects.
2. Second Principle (Principle of Superposition): The principle of
superposition states that the effects of multiple forces acting on an
object can be determined by adding them vectorially.
3. Third Principle (Principle of Equilibrium): The principle of equilibrium
states that an object is in a state of equilibrium when the vector sum of
all external forces acting on it is zero, and the sum of the torques
(moments) about any point is also zero.
Equilibrium can be of two types:

a. Translational Equilibrium: An object is in translational equilibrium

when the net force acting on it is zero.

b. Rotational Equilibrium: An object is in rotational equilibrium when the net

torque (moment) acting on it is zero.
4. Fourth Principle (Principle of Action-Reaction): The principle of
action-reaction, also known as Newton's third law of motion,
states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
the reactions :
In the context of statics, "reactions" refer to the forces or
reactions exerted by a supporting structure or surface in
response to the presence of a load or external forces.

There are two primary types of reactions:

1. Normal Reaction or Normal Force: The normal reaction, also

known as the normal force, is the reaction force exerted
perpendicular to the surface of contact.
. Normal Reaction or Normal Force:
2. Frictional Force: In addition to the normal reaction, surfaces
in contact can also exert a frictional force.

It's important to note that reactions are not limited to statics; they
also play a significant role in dynamics, where they influence the
motion and acceleration of objects.
converging force :

it refer to a situation where multiple forces act on an object and their

resultant force vectors converge or come together at a single point.

When multiple forces are applied to an object, their individual force

vectors can be added together to determine the resultant force. If the
forces are acting in different directions, the resultant force can be
found by vector addition, where the forces are added head-to-tail. In
some cases, the resultant force may have a single force vector that
represents the combined effect of the individual forces.
geometric method to integration forces :

When dealing with complex systems of forces, the geometric method

can be a visual approach to integrating forces. This method involves
representing forces as vectors and using geometric techniques, such as
vector addition and decomposition, to analyze and integrate the forces.
Here are the steps involved in using the geometric method to
integrate forces:

1. Vector Representation: Begin by representing each force acting

on the object as a vector.
2. Vector Addition: Use vector addition to find the resultant force.
Place the vectors head-to-tail, aligning their tails together.
3. Decomposition: If necessary, decompose the resultant force
into its components along different axes.
4. Integration: Integrate the individual force components by
considering their magnitudes and direction along the appropriate
path.
The geometric method of integrating forces can provide a visual
understanding of the forces acting on an object and their combined
effects. It is particularly useful when dealing with systems involving
complex force interactions or when a visual representation aids in
the analysis and integration process.
 disintegration forces:

disintegration forces refer to the internal forces within a structure

that act to separate or cause failure of its components or
connections. These forces are often associated with the failure
modes of the structure, such as fracture, yielding, or detachment of
parts.
•Fracture: This occurs when the material experiences excessive tensile
forces that exceed its tensile strength, leading to the separation or
rupture of the material.
•Yielding: Yielding happens when the material undergoes plastic
deformation due to high compressive or tensile forces exceeding its
yield strength. Yielding is typically characterized by permanent
deformation without fracture.
the balance of converging the same page force system :

If you have a system of forces that are converging at a single point, it is

important to analyze the balance of forces to determine the overall
equilibrium of the system. Here are the steps to assess the balance of a
converging force system:
1. Identify the Forces: Identify all the forces acting on the system and
their directions. Consider both external forces and internal forces
within the system.
2. Vector Addition: Use vector addition to find the resultant force.
Place the force vectors head-to-tail, aligning their tails together.
3. Resolve Resultant Force: If necessary, resolve the resultant force
into its components along different axes.
4. Balance of Forces: Examine the balance of forces acting on the system. If
the resultant force is zero (i.e., the vector sum of the forces is zero), then the
system is in equilibrium. This means that the converging forces precisely
balance each other out, resulting in no net force at the point of convergence.
5. Moment Balance: In addition to considering the balance of forces, you may
also need to assess the balance of moments (torques) if the system involves
rotational equilibrium. Check if the moments produced by the forces about any
point or axis are also balanced. If the sum of the moments is zero, then the
system is in rotational equilibrium.
 torque to the center :

When discussing torque, it is important to specify the point or axis

about which the torque is calculated. If you are referring to the
torque acting on an object and its center of mass, the torque about
the center of mass would typically be zero.
The torque (τ) acting on an object is defined as the product
of the force (F) applied to the object and the perpendicular
distance (r) from the point of application of the force to the
axis of rotation. Mathematically, it can be expressed as
τ = F × r × sin(θ) , where θ is the angle between the
force vector and the line connecting the point of application
to the axis of rotation.
If the force is applied directly at the center of mass of an object,
the perpendicular distance (r) is zero, and sin(θ) is also zero,
resulting in a torque of zero. This is because the force is not
causing any rotational motion about the center of mass since
the distance is zero.
In summary, if the force is applied directly at the center of mass, the
torque about the center of mass is zero. If the force is applied at a
different point on the object, the torque about the center of mass
can be nonzero and would depend on the specific conditions of the
force application.
 Mad institute
petroleum department

CHAPTER (2)
The Resultant Force

2023- 2024
 The Resultant Force
The resultant force is the single force that represents the combined
effect of multiple forces acting on an object. It is the vector sum of all
the individual forces.
To determine the resultant
force, you need to consider
both the magnitudes and
directions of the individual
forces. Here are the steps to
calculate the resultant force:
1. Resolve Forces: If the forces are not already resolved into their
components, decompose each force into its horizontal and vertical
components.
2. Sum up Components: Add up all the horizontal components of
the forces to obtain the total horizontal component of the resultant
force.
3. Combine Components: Combine the horizontal and vertical
components of the resultant force to form a vector representation.
4. Magnitude and Direction: Determine the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force from the resultant vector. The magnitude can be found using
the Pythagorean theorem,
force transmission:

Force transmission refers to the transfer or propagation of forces

from one object or component to another. When a force is applied
to an object or a system, it can be transmitted through various
mechanisms and pathways to other objects or components within
the system.
Force transmission can occur through direct contact between
objects or through the medium in which the objects are immersed.
Here are some common mechanisms of force transmission:
1. Direct Contact: When objects are in direct contact, forces can be
transmitted through physical interactions at the contact points. For
example, when you push a box across the floor, the force is
transmitted from your hand to the box through the contact
surface.
2. Mechanical Connections: Forces can be transmitted through
mechanical connections such as joints, hinges, fasteners, or
linkages.
3. Structural Elements: Forces can be transmitted through the structural
elements of a system, such as beams, columns, or trusses. These
elements are designed to bear and distribute loads, transferring forces
throughout the structure. For instance, in a building, the columns and
beams transmit the loads from the floors to the foundation.
4. Fluid Transmission: Forces can be transmitted through fluids, such as
liquids or gases.
5. Electrical Transmission: In electrical systems, forces can be
transmitted through electrical currents. When an electrical current
flows through a conductor, it generates a magnetic field that can
exert forces on nearby conductors or magnetic materials.
Understanding force transmission is essential in engineering and
design, as it allows for the analysis of how forces propagate
through a system and how they affect the behavior and
performance of objects and components. By considering force
transmission, engineers can ensure that forces are properly
distributed and managed within a system to achieve desired
outcomes and maintain structural integrity.
equilibrium conditions :

Equilibrium conditions, also known as the conditions for mechanical

equilibrium, describe the state in which an object or a system is in a
state of balance, with no net external forces or torques acting upon
it. In other words, the object or system is not accelerating or
rotating.
There are two main types of equilibrium conditions: translational
equilibrium and rotational equilibrium.

1. Translational Equilibrium: Translational equilibrium refers to the

condition in which the sum of all external forces acting on an object
is zero. This can be expressed mathematically as:

ΣF = 0
where ΣF represents the vector sum of all external forces
acting on the object. This condition ensures that the object is not
accelerating in any direction.
1. Rotational Equilibrium: Rotational equilibrium refers to the
condition in which the sum of all external torques acting on an
object is zero. This can be expressed mathematically as:

Στ = 0
where Στ represents the sum of all external torques acting on the
object. This condition ensures that the object is not rotating or
that the net torque acting on the object is zero.
These equilibrium conditions are derived from Newton's laws of
motion. According to Newton's first law, an object at rest or moving at
a constant velocity will remain in that state unless acted upon by an
external force. When the sum of external forces and torques is zero,
the object or system satisfies the conditions for equilibrium.
integrations and disintegration of parallel force:

When discussing the integration and disintegration of parallel forces,

we are referring to the combination or separation of multiple forces
acting in the same direction along parallel lines.
Integration of Parallel Forces:
Integration involves combining multiple parallel forces into a single
equivalent force. When parallel forces act in the same direction,
their magnitudes can be added together to obtain the resultant
force. The resultant force represents the combined effect of all the
individual forces.
To integrate parallel forces, follow these steps:

1. Ensure that all the forces are parallel and acting in the same
direction.
2. Determine the magnitudes of each individual force.
3. Add up the magnitudes of all the forces to find the resultant
force. The resultant force will have the same direction as the
original forces.
For example, if you have two forces of 10 Newton's and 15
Newton's acting in the same direction along parallel lines, the
integrated force would be 25 Newton's (10 N + 15 N).
Disintegration of Parallel Forces:

Disintegration refers to the separation of a single force into

multiple parallel forces. It is the opposite process of
integration.
To disintegrate a force, follow these steps:
1. Identify the single force that needs to be disintegrated.
2. Determine the desired number of parallel forces that will
replace the single force.
3. Divide the magnitude of the original force by the number of
desired parallel forces to obtain the magnitude of each individual
force.
4. Assign the same direction to each individual force as the
original force.
For example, if you have a force of 30 Newton's and you want to
disintegrate it into three parallel forces, each force would have a
magnitude of 10 Newton's (30 N / 3).
Integration and disintegration of parallel forces are useful
concepts in engineering and physics, particularly in the
analysis and design of structural systems. By integrating or
disintegrating forces, engineers can simplify complex force
systems and determine the overall effect of parallel forces on a
structure or object.
force couple:
A force couple is a pair of forces that have equal magnitudes,
opposite directions, and act on a body at different points or along
different lines of action. These forces do not have a net result in
translational motion of the body but instead create a rotational
effect.
Key characteristics of a force couple include:

1. Equal Magnitude: The two forces in a force couple have the same
magnitude.
2. Opposite Directions: The forces in a force couple act in
opposite directions.
3. Different Points or Lines of Action: The forces in a force couple do
not intersect or coincide at a single point. They are applied at different
points or act along different lines of action on the body.
The combined effect of a force couple is a rotation or moment
about a specific axis or point. The moment created by each
individual force is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
resulting in a tendency for the body to rotate without translation.
To calculate the moment produced by a force couple, you can
multiply the magnitude of one of the forces by the perpendicular
distance between the lines of action of the two forces. The
resulting moment represents the rotational effect of the force
couple.
torque force couple and coupling of
equivalence and integration:

- Torque (τ) is the rotational equivalent of force. It is calculated

as τ = r x F, where r is the distance from the axis of rotation to
the point where the force F is applied.
- A force couple consists of two equal but opposite parallel
forces that are offset by some distance. The torque produced
by a force couple is τ = Fd, where d is the perpendicular
distance between the two forces.
- Coupling refers to the interaction between two rotating objects that
are joined by a shaft. Torque applied to one object will be transmitted
through the shaft to the other object.
- Two force couples can be equivalent if they produce the same net
torque. The torques from each couple can be calculated and set equal
to each other.
- Integration of force couples means adding up the torques from
multiple force couples acting on a body. The net torque is the
vector sum of the individual torque vectors. This determines the
resulting angular acceleration of the body according to τnet = Iα,
where the moment of inertia.
So in summary, torque, force couples, coupling, equivalence, and
integration of couples are all related concepts for analyzing
rotational dynamics. The key is assessing the torques on a body
from all forces/couples to find the net torque and rotational
response.
specified and unspecified statics :

In the context of mechanics, "specified statics" and "unspecified

statics" refer to two different approaches or methods used to analyze
and solve static equilibrium problems.
1. Specified Statics: Specified statics, also known as determinate
statics, deals with problems that have a sufficient number of
known equations or conditions to determine the unknown forces
or reactions.
. In specified statics, all the external forces and moments acting
on a structure or object are known or specified. This allows for
the determination of the internal forces, reactions, and
equilibrium conditions through the application of equilibrium
equations, such as the sum of forces and sum of moments
equations.
2. Unspecified Statics: Unspecified statics, also known as
indeterminate statics, deals with problems that have insufficient
information or redundant conditions to determine the unknown
forces or reactions through equilibrium equations alone. In
unspecified statics, the number of unknowns is greater than the
number of available equilibrium equations.
To solve unspecified statics problems, additional conditions or
compatibility equations beyond equilibrium equations need to be
applied. These additional conditions can be derived from material
properties, geometric constraints, or deformation characteristics of
the structure. Methods such as the method of virtual work,
flexibility method, or stiffness method are commonly used to solve
unspecified statics problems.
In summary, specified statics deals with problems that can be
solved using equilibrium equations alone, while unspecified
statics involves problems that require additional conditions or
methods beyond equilibrium equations to determine the
unknown forces or reactions.
types of bearing :
Definition :
Bearings are mechanical devices that facilitate smooth
movement and reduce friction between moving parts.

They are widely used in various applications, ranging from

machinery and automotive systems to industrial equipment and
household appliances. There are several types of bearings, each
designed to suit specific load capacities, motion types, and
environmental conditions.
Here are some common types of bearings:

1. Ball Bearings: Ball bearings are the most

widely used type of bearing. They consist of
rolling balls held in a raceway, which reduces
friction between the moving parts.
2. Roller Bearings: Roller bearings use cylindrical or tapered rollers
instead of balls to support loads. They have a larger contact area,
enabling them to handle heavier loads compared to ball bearings.
3. Plain Bearings: Plain bearings, also known as sleeve bearings or
bushings, are the simplest type of bearing. They consist of a cylindrical
sleeve that provides a low-friction surface between the moving parts.
Plain bearings often require lubrication to reduce friction and wear.
4. Thrust Bearings: Thrust bearings are designed to handle axial loads,
meaning they support forces acting parallel to the shaft. They have
specialized structures to withstand high axial loads and prevent axial
movement.
5. Spherical Bearings: Spherical bearings, also called spherical plain
bearings or self-aligning bearings, have an inner ring that can rotate in
multiple directions.
6. Needle Bearings: Needle bearings use long, thin cylindrical rollers
with a high length-to-diameter ratio.
7. Magnetic Bearings: Magnetic bearings use magnetic fields to
levitate and support rotating shafts.
These are just a few examples of the many types of bearings
available. The choice of bearing depends on factors such as load
capacity, speed, accuracy, environmental conditions, and specific
application requirements. It's essential to select the appropriate
bearing type and properly maintain them to ensure optimal
performance and longevity.
bearing reaction :

In the context of mechanical systems, the term "bearing reaction"

refers to the forces and moments exerted by a bearing on the
components it supports

Bearings are used to facilitate smooth movement and reduce

friction between moving parts in various applications. When a load
is applied to a bearing, it generates reactions that act on the
bearing itself, as well as on the surrounding structure.
 There are two primary types of bearing reactions:
1. Radial Reactions: Radial reactions occur perpendicular to the
axis of rotation or movement. In a bearing, these reactions are
directed radially inward or outward. Radial reactions are
responsible for supporting the radial or transverse loads applied
to the bearing.
For example, in a ball bearing supporting a rotating shaft, the
radial reactions counteract the radial forces and moments
exerted by the shaft.
2. Axial Reactions: Axial reactions, also known as thrust reactions, occur
parallel to the axis of rotation or movement. These reactions support the
axial or thrust loads applied to the bearing. Axial reactions can vary
depending on whether the thrust load is in the direction of the shaft or
opposite to it. In some cases, specialized thrust bearings may be used to
handle high axial loads.
The magnitude and direction of bearing reactions depend on
various factors, including the applied loads, the type of bearing,
and the design of the system. It is crucial to consider these
reactions when designing and analyzing mechanical systems to
ensure that the bearings and supporting structures can handle
the anticipated loads and forces.
solid center of gravity:
The center of gravity of a solid object refers to the imaginary point
where the object's weight is considered to be concentrated

. Some key points about the center of gravity of solids:

 It is the average location of the weight distribution of the

object.
 For a homogeneous solid with uniform density, it is the same
as the geometric center.
 For an irregular or non-uniform solid, it is located where the
object balances evenly.
 The center of gravity is where a force can support the solid
object evenly.
 It is the point through which the force of gravity acts on the
object.
 The location of the center of gravity depends on the mass
distribution. For simple shapes like a cube, it is easy to find
geometrically.
 For a complex shape, the center of gravity can be found
experimentally by suspending the object from different
points to see where it balances.
 In physics problems, the weight of a solid object can be
assumed to act through the center of gravity. This simplifies
analysis.
 The center of gravity may be located outside the physical body
of the object, if the mass distribution warrants it.
 Finding the center of gravity is useful for analyzing the stability
and dynamics of solid objects. It is an important concept in
physics and engineering mechanics.
 the first order torque :

 The first order torque, also known as the restoring torque, refers
to the torque that is proportional to the angular displacement. It
arises in rotational motion when a system is displaced from its
equilibrium position.
  Some key points about first order torque:

 It is mathematically modeled as τ = -κθ, where τ is the torque,

θ is the angular displacement, and κ is the torsional spring
constant.

 The minus sign indicates the torque acts to restore the system
back toward the equilibrium position, like a spring force.
 It is called first order because the torque is directly proportional
to the first power of the angular displacement.

 The torsional spring constant κ depends on the mechanical

properties and geometry of the system.

 Examples where first order torque applies include torsional

pendulums, torsion balances, drive shafts, torsion bars, and
twisted wires or fibers.
 The first order torque slows the motion and creates oscillatory
behavior in rotational dynamics where energy converts
between potential and kinetic form.

 The equation of motion including first order torque is Iα + κθ =

0, where the moment of inertia and α is angular acceleration.

 First order torque provides a centering force that is

fundamental to modeling rotational behavior in physics and
engineering.
 Mad institute
petroleum department

CHAPTER (3)
Strength of Materials

2023- 2024
 Strength of Materials

 Strength of materials refers to the ability of a material to

withstand applied forces without undergoing deformation or
failure. It is a fundamental concept in engineering and plays a
crucial role in designing structures and components that can
withstand the loads they are subjected to.
Here are some basic definitions related to the strength of
materials:
1. Stress: Stress is the internal force per unit area acting on a material.
It is calculated by dividing the applied force or load by the cross-
sectional area of the material. The SI unit of stress is Pascal (Pa), which
is equal to one Newton per square meter (N/m²).
2. Strain: Strain is the measure of deformation experienced by a
material in response to an applied stress. It is expressed as the
ratio of the change in length or shape of a material to its
original length or shape. Strain is a dimensionless quantity.
3. Elasticity: Elasticity is the property of a material to return
to its original shape and size after the applied forces are
removed. When a material is subjected to stress within its
elastic limit, it deforms elastically and returns to its original
state once the stress is released.
4. Yield Strength: Yield strength is the maximum stress a
material can withstand without undergoing permanent
deformation or yielding.
5. Ultimate Strength:
Ultimate strength, also
known as the tensile
strength or compressive
strength, is the maximum
stress a material can
withstand before failure
occurs. It is the point at
which the material
experiences significant
permanent deformation or
fractures.
6. Safety Factor: Safety factor is a ratio that accounts for
uncertainties in design and ensures a margin of safety. It is
calculated by dividing the ultimate strength or yield strength of a
material by the expected maximum stress in the design. Higher
safety factors indicate a more conservative and safer design.
7. Modulus of Elasticity: The modulus of elasticity, also known as
Young's modulus, is a measure of a material's stiffness or ability to
resist deformation under an applied load. It represents the ratio of
stress to strain within the elastic limit of the material. The modulus
of elasticity is expressed in units of pressure, such as Pascal (Pa) or
pounds per square inch (psi).
8. Ductility: Ductility is the property of a material to undergo significant
plastic deformation before fracturing. Ductile materials can be
stretched or bent without breaking. The extent of ductility is typically
quantified by the percentage of elongation or reduction in cross-
sectional area before failure.
9. Brittle: Brittle materials exhibit minimal plastic deformation and
tend to fracture without warning when subjected to stress. They
have limited ability to absorb energy before failure.
Definition of toughness:
Toughness is a measure of a material's ability to absorb energy and
deform plastically before fracturing or breaking. It represents the
material's resistance to fracture under impact or sudden loading
conditions.
 definition of strength:

Strength refers to the ability of a material to withstand applied

forces without undergoing deformation or failure. It is a measure
of the maximum stress a material can sustain before it
experiences significant permanent deformation or fractures.
definition of flexibility:

Flexibility refers to the ability of a material or object to bend,

twist, or deform without breaking or losing its structural
integrity. It is a measure of how easily a material can be bent or
moved without experiencing permanent deformation or
failure.
study of internal and external force of objects:

The study of internal and external forces of objects is a fundamental

aspect of mechanics, a branch of physics that deals with the behavior
of physical bodies under the influence of forces. Understanding these
forces helps explain how objects move, deform, and interact with their
surroundings.
 Here's a brief explanation of internal and external forces:

1. Internal Forces: Internal forces are forces that act within an object or
system. They arise due to the interactions between different parts or
components of the object. Internal forces are typically equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, following Newton's third law of
motion (action-reaction principle).
2. External Forces: External forces, also known as applied forces, are
forces that act on an object from its surroundings. They originate
from sources outside the object and can cause changes in the
object's motion or shape.
the definition of stress and strain:
1. Stress: Stress is a measure of the internal force per unit area acting on
a material.

It represents the intensity of the forces experienced by the material

when subjected to external loads or forces. Stress is calculated by
dividing the applied force (or load) by the cross-sectional area of the
material. The SI unit of stress is Pascal (Pa), which is equal to one
Newton per square meter (N/m²).
2. Strain: Strain is a measure of the deformation or change in
shape experienced by a material in response to an applied stress.

It quantifies the relative change in size or shape of an object

compared to its original dimensions. Strain is typically expressed as a
dimensionless quantity or as a percentage. It is calculated by dividing
the change in length, area, or volume of the material by its original
length, area, or volume.
Stress and strain are related concepts and are used to describe
the behavior of materials under external forces. When a material
is subjected to stress, it deforms or changes shape, resulting in
strain. The relationship between stress and strain is described by
the material's mechanical properties, such as its modulus of
elasticity or Young's modulus.
shear force and bending torque graphs:
Shear force and bending torque graphs are graphical representations
that illustrate the distribution of shear forces and bending torques
along the length of a structural element, such as a beam or a shaft.
These graphs are commonly used in structural engineering and
mechanics to analyze and design structures subjected to external
loads.
1. Shear Force Diagram (SFD): A shear force diagram shows the variation
of the shear force along the length of the structural element.
2. Bending Moment Diagram (BMD): A bending moment diagram
illustrates the variation of the bending moment along the length of the
structural element.
the concept of stress:

The concept of stress is a fundamental concept in mechanics and

materials science. Stress refers to the internal force per unit area
acting on a material when subjected to external loads or forces. It
represents the intensity of the forces experienced by the material
at a particular point.
Stress is denoted by the symbol σ (sigma) and is calculated by
dividing the applied force (F) by the cross-sectional area (A)
over which the force is applied. Mathematically, stress (σ) is
expressed as:
σ=F/A

The SI unit of stress is Pascal (Pa), which is equal to one Newton

per square meter (N/m²). However, other units such as psi (pounds
per square inch) are also commonly used.
Stress can have different components
depending on the type of force applied and the
direction of the force relative to the material.
Common types of stress include:

1. Tensile Stress: Tensile stress

occurs when forces are applied
to pull or stretch a material,
causing it to elongate in the
direction of the applied force.
2. Compressive Stress:
Compressive stress occurs
when forces are applied to
compress or squeeze a
material, causing it to
shorten in the direction of
the applied force.
3. Shear Stress: Shear
stress occurs when forces
are applied parallel to the
surface of a material,
causing one part of the
material to slide or
deform relative to
another part.
4. Bending Stress: Bending stress occurs in structures or beams subjected to
bending moments, resulting in tension on one side and compression on the
other side of the beam.
tension:
Tension refers to a type of stress that occurs when forces are
applied to pull or stretch a material, causing it to elongate. It is a
form of mechanical stress that acts along the axis of the
material being pulled.
the relative length change:

The relative length change, also known as strain, is a measure of the

deformation or change in length experienced by a material relative
to its original length. It quantifies the amount of elongation or
contraction that occurs when a material is subjected to an external
force or stress.
Strain is typically expressed as a dimensionless quantity or as a
percentage
It is calculated by dividing the change in length (ΔL) of the material
by its original length (L₀). Mathematically, strain (ε) can be
represented as:
ε = ΔL / L₀

The relative length change can be positive or negative depending on

whether the material is elongated or contracted. A positive strain value
indicates elongation (tensile strain), whereas a negative strain value
represents contraction (compressive strain).
Strain is an essential parameter used to describe the deformation
behavior of materials under applied forces. Different types of strain
can be considered, such as:
1. Tensile Strain: Tensile strain occurs when a material is subjected
to tensile (pulling) forces, leading to elongation along the direction
of the applied force.
2. Compressive Strain: Compressive
strain occurs when a material is
subjected to compressive (pushing or
squeezing) forces, causing it to contract
or shorten along the direction of the
applied force.

3. Shear Strain: Shear strain occurs

when a material is subjected to
parallel forces that cause one part
of the material to slide or deform
relative to another part.
4. Volumetric Strain: Volumetric strain refers to the change in
volume of a material due to applied forces, taking into account all
three dimensions.
thermal and mechanical strain:
Thermal and mechanical strain are two types of strain that describe
the deformation or change in dimensions of a material under
different types of loading conditions.
1. Thermal Strain: Thermal strain, also known as thermal
expansion or thermal deformation, refers to the change in size
or dimensions of a material due to temperature variations.
When a material is heated or cooled, its molecules or atoms
vibrate and move, resulting in an expansion or contraction of
the material. Thermal strain is typically expressed as a
coefficient of thermal expansion (α), which represents the
fractional change in length per unit change in temperature. The
thermal strain (ε_T) can be calculated using the equation:
ε_T = α * ΔT
where ΔT is the change in temperature. Thermal strain is an
important consideration in applications where temperature
changes can cause significant dimensional changes, such as in
the construction of bridges, pipelines, and electronic devices.
2. Mechanical Strain: Mechanical strain refers to the
deformation or change in dimensions of a material due to the
application of mechanical forces or stresses. Mechanical strain
occurs when external forces are applied to a material, causing it
to elongate, contract, bend, or deform in some way. Mechanical
strain is typically characterized by the ratio of the change in
length (ΔL) to the original length (L₀) of the material and can be
expressed as:
ε_m = ΔL / L₀
Hooke's Law:
Hooke's Law is a fundamental principle
in physics and materials science that
describes the relationship between the
force applied to a material and the
resulting deformation or change in
length of the material. It is named after
the English scientist Robert Hooke, who
formulated this law in the 17th century.
Hooke's Law states that, for small deformations, the force
required to deform a material is directly proportional to the
amount of deformation. Mathematically, Hooke's Law can be
expressed as:
F = k * ΔL
where:
- F is the applied force,
- k is the proportionality constant known as the spring constant
or stiffness of the material,
- ΔL is the change in length or deformation of the material.
Hooke's Law is commonly applied to linear elastic materials, which
exhibit a linear relationship between stress (force per unit area)
and strain (deformation per unit length). In this case, the equation
can be rewritten in terms of stress and strain as:
σ=E*ε
where:
- σ is the stress applied to the material,
- E is the elastic modulus or Young's modulus of the material,
- ε is the strain experienced by the material.
According to Hooke's Law, the material returns to its original shape
and size when the applied force is removed, as long as the
deformation remains within the elastic limit of the material.
However, when the deformation exceeds the elastic limit, the
material may exhibit plastic deformation or permanent
deformation.
biaxial and triaxial deformation:
Biaxial and triaxial deformation refer to specific types of
deformation that occur in materials when subjected to multiple
forces or stresses in different directions.
1. Biaxial Deformation: Biaxial deformation refers
to the deformation of a material when it
experiences two principal stresses acting in
perpendicular directions. In other words, the
material is subjected to forces or stresses in two
different directions simultaneously. Biaxial
deformation can occur in various configurations,
such as tension in one direction and compression
in the perpendicular direction or shear in two
perpendicular planes.
Biaxial deformation can result in complex stress and strain
distributions within the material. It causes changes in shape,
dimensions, and internal forces of the material. The behavior of
materials under biaxial deformation is important to consider in
structural engineering, as it can affect the strength, stability, and
performance of structures under varying loading conditions.
2. Triaxial Deformation: Triaxial deformation
occurs when a material experiences three
principal stresses acting in different directions. In
this case, the material is subjected to forces or
stresses in three mutually perpendicular
directions simultaneously. Triaxial deformation is
often encountered in geotechnical engineering,
where soil and rock masses are subjected to
stresses from all directions due to the weight of
overlying soil or structures.
Triaxial deformation can lead to complex stress and strain patterns
within the material. It can induce significant changes in material
behavior, such as shear failure, consolidation, or compaction.
Understanding the triaxial deformation characteristics of materials is
crucial for designing stable foundations, retaining walls, and other
geotechnical structures.
Both biaxial and triaxial deformation are more complex than uniaxial
deformation, where the material experiences stress or forces in a
single direction. Analyzing and predicting the behavior of materials
under biaxial and triaxial deformation often require advanced
experimental techniques, such as triaxial testing or numerical
modeling, to accurately capture the complex interactions between
stresses and strains in different directions.
Poisson factor:
The Poisson's ratio, often denoted by the symbol ν (nu), is a
dimensionless quantity that describes the lateral or transverse
deformation of a material when it is subjected to an axial or
longitudinal deformation. It is named after the French
mathematician and physicist Siméon Poisson, who introduced the
concept in the 19th century.
Poisson's ratio is defined as the ratio of the relative
transverse or lateral strain (εₜ) to the axial or longitudinal
strain (εₗ) in a material. Mathematically, it can be expressed
as:
ν = -εₜ / εₗ
Some common values of Poisson's ratio include:
- Metals: Most metals have Poisson's ratios between 0.25 and 0.35.
- Rubber and elastomers: These materials typically have Poisson's ratios close to
0.5, indicating a high degree of lateral expansion under axial deformation.
- Concrete: The Poisson's ratio of concrete is usually around 0.15 to 0.20.
- Wood: Wood materials typically have Poisson's ratios between 0.25 and 0.35.
It's important to note that Poisson's ratio is a material property
and can vary depending on factors such as material composition,
microstructure, and loading conditions.
tensile and compressive stresses:
Tensile and compressive stresses are two types of mechanical
stresses that occur in materials when subjected to external forces
or loads.
1. Tensile Stress: Tensile stress, also known as tension, is a type of stress
that occurs when forces are applied to pull or stretch a material in
opposite directions. It acts perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of
the material and tends to elongate or extend the material.

It is characterized by a positive sign (+) and is often expressed in units of

force per unit area (e.g., N/m² or Pa). Tensile stress can lead to
elongation and deformation of the material along the direction of the
applied force.
2. Compressive Stress: Compressive stress, also known as
compression, is a type of stress that occurs when forces are applied
to squeeze or compress a material. It acts perpendicular to the
cross-sectional area of the material and tends to shorten or
decrease the length of the material.

. It is characterized by a negative sign (-) and is expressed in units of

force per unit area (e.g., N/m² or Pa). Compressive stress can lead
to compression and deformation of the material along the direction
of the applied force.
simple torsion rods with filled and hollow circular sections:

When it comes to torsion rods with filled and hollow circular

sections, the main difference lies in their resistance to torsional or
twisting forces. Let's explore each type:

1. Filled Circular Section: A torsion rod with a filled circular section

refers to a solid rod or shaft with a circular cross-section. It has a
continuous material throughout its entire cross-sectional area.
2. Hollow Circular Section: A torsion rod with a hollow circular
section is characterized by having a circular cross-section with an
empty or hollow interior. This type of rod consists of an outer
circular ring or tube with a void in the middle.

In practical applications, the choice between filled and hollow circular

section torsion rods depends on various factors, including structural
requirements, material availability, weight considerations, and cost.
Filled circular section rods are generally preferred when maximum
torsional strength and rigidity are essential, such as in heavy-duty
applications or when transmitting high levels of torque.
bending design and analysis:

Bending design and analysis are crucial steps in engineering when

designing structures or components subjected to bending loads.
Bending occurs when external forces or moments are applied to a
structure, causing it to deform by curving or flexing.
Here are the key aspects involved in bending design and analysis:

1. Bending Moment: The bending moment is the measure of the

internal forces within a structure that cause bending. It represents
the tendency of the external forces to induce bending deformation.
The bending moment varies along the length of the structure and is
influenced by factors such as the applied loads, supports, and
geometry.
2. Bending Stress: Bending stress refers to the internal stress within
a structure resulting from bending. It is caused by the distribution
of the bending moment across the cross-section of the structure.
The magnitude of bending stress is directly proportional to the
bending moment and inversely proportional to the moment of
inertia of the cross-section. Excessive bending stress can lead to
material failure, such as yielding or fracture.
3. Neutral Axis: The neutral axis is an imaginary line or plane
within the cross-section of a structure that experiences no change
in length during bending. It separates the compressed and
stretched regions of the material. The location of the neutral axis
depends on the shape and dimensions of the cross-section.

4. Section Modulus: The section modulus is a property of the

cross-section that quantifies its resistance to bending. It is a
measure of the distribution of material around the neutral axis
and is directly related to the moment of inertia. A larger section
modulus indicates a higher resistance to bending and results in
lower bending stresses.
5. Bending Deflection: Bending deflection refers to the amount
of deformation or displacement experienced by a structure
under bending loads. The deflection depends on factors such as
the applied loads, material properties, and structural
dimensions. Excessive deflection can affect the functionality and
stability of a structure.
During bending design and analysis, engineers typically consider
factors such as material selection, cross-sectional geometry, load
conditions, safety factors, and relevant design codes or standards.
Engineering calculations, computer simulations, and finite element
analysis (FEA) are commonly employed to determine the bending
stresses, deflections, and overall structural behavior.

The goal is to ensure that the structure or component can

withstand the applied bending loads while maintaining
acceptable levels of stress and deflection.
It's important to note that the design and analysis of bending
vary depending on the specific application and the type of
structure being considered, such as beams, columns, or curved
members.