CHEMICAL BONDING

Learning Outcome :
Candidates should be able to:

• describe ionic (electrovalent)

bonding as exemplified by
NaCl and MgCl2.
• Atoms when combine, tend to give, receive
or share electrons to achieve the noble gas
electronic arrangement (octet rule).

• Only valence electrons are involved.

 Chemical
Bonding

Ionic Covalent Metallic Van der Hydrogen

Bond Bond Bond Waals Bond
 Ionic Bonding
• Strong Electrostatic attractive force formed
between two oppositely charged ions when
valence electrons from an electropositive atom
(metal) are transferred to an electronegative atom
(non-metal).
Lewis structure of NaCl
Dot & cross diagram.
Only valence electrons
0.93 3.16 are involved.

* Circle to represent
shell is NOT allowed in
Lewis diagram.

Ionic bonding takes place when there is a large difference in electronegativity (>2)
between the two atoms combining.
• Na (2.8.1) • Cl (2.8.7)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

• Cl− (2.8.8)
Na+ (2.8) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
1s2 2s2 2p6
Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding takes place when there is a

large difference in electronegativity between
the two atoms combining.
 Strength of Ionic Bond
• Charge
• Interionic distance (ionic size)

F = strength of ionic bond

Q+ = charge of cation r+ = radius of cation
Q− = charge of anion r− = radius of anion

The higher the charge on ions or the smaller

the ionic radius, the stronger is the ionic bond.
•

MgO - 2852 °C
BaO - 1923 °C
NaCl - 801 °C
KCl - 790 °C
Properties of ionic compounds
Conductivity
Conductivity
Conductivity
Solubility in water
 Solubility in non-polar solvent

Ionic compounds are insoluble in non-polar solvents.

•
Question :
Which of the following elements can form a chloride
compound with the strongest ionic bond?
A Calcium
B Sodium
C Potassium
D Carbon
•
•
Question :
P is an ionic compound. This means that P
A dissolves easily in water
B has a high melting point
C has a high vapour pressure
D is a good electrical conductor
•
STPM 2015 Q10
Which compound has the strongest ionic bond?
A
B
C
D
STPM 2013 Q4
Which compound has an ionic bond?
A
B
C
D
Learning Outcomes :
Candidates should be able to

• draw the Lewis structure of covalent

molecules (octet rule as exemplified by
NH3, CCl4, H2O, CO2, N2O4 and exception
to the octet rule as exemplified by BF 3, NO,
NO2, PCl5, SF6);

• draw the Lewis structure of ions as

exemplified by SO42- , CO32- , NO3- and CN-.
 Covalent Bond
•

Bond
pair

Lone pair
Lewis Diagram :

Lewis structure :
• All valence e have to
be shown.
• Bond pair e can be
represented by line
as shown.

The number of covalent bonds depends on the

number of electrons required to achieve
noble gas electronic structure.
Draw the Lewis Structure of HCN
1. Draw the skeletal structure in the most symmetrical
manner with atom of the least electronegativity in the
center.
H C N
2. Calculate the total number of electrons in outer shell
electrons. The number of outer shell electrons is
obtained from the group number in the periodic table.
H C N
×
Number of valence e− : 1 4 5 H×C ×
× N
Number of e− required : 1 4 3

3. Add the remaining electrons to the skeletal structure as

non-bonded pairs (lone pairs).
×
H×C ×
× N
 Multiple covalent bonds
• More than 1 pair of electrons are shared
between atoms.
The negative charge of the ions tends to be shared among as many
other atoms as possible. This is to decrease the charge density &
to stabilise the ion.
 STPM 2018 Q16(a)
Draw the Lewis structures for NH4+ and NO3- ions and
predict their shapes. [4]

Answer

Tetrahedral Trigonal planar

MPM report
In part (a), most of the candidates were able to state the shape of NH4+ ion
as tetrahedral and the shape of NO3- ion as trigonal planar but they were
unable to draw the correct Lewis structures for NH4+ ion and NO3- ion,
mainly by not writing the charge of the ion on the correct atom.
 Formal charge
• Formal charge is the difference between number of
valence e and the number of e assigned to the atom in
the Lewis structure..
• Cyanate ion :

N C O
Valence e 5 4 6
Lone pair e 2 0 6
Bond pair e 3 4 1
Formal charge 0 0 -1
 (Preferred)

Second structure is preferred as it has the negative charge on the

more electronegative atom (oxygen).

(Preferred)

Total formal charge is zero. Second structure is preferred as it has

all zero formal charges.
 Exception to Octet Rule
(a) Incomplete octet
• The surroundings atoms must achieve octet
configuration but not necessarily for the central atoms.

• If the central atom (from Period 2), the total number of

electrons surrounded cannot exceed 8 (2s, 2p).
(b) Expanded octet
• For atoms from Period 3 & above, there is no
restriction. Atoms can accommodate more than 8
electrons in their valence shell.
• These atoms have empty d orbitals in their valence
shell which the atoms can use to expand their valencies.

15 P : 3s2
3p 3
3d0
16 S : 3s2
3p 4
3d0

3s1 3p3 3d1 ?

(c) Odd-electron Molecules
• Central atom from odd-numbered group
(nitrogen, G15 ; chlorine, G17) forms odd-
electron molecules.
• NO, NO2, ClO2

Species with odd e are paramagnetic

(attracted by magnetic field)
Paramagnetic Diamagnetic (non-magnetic)

• Unpaired spins • All spins are paired

• Attracted by magnetic field • Repelled by magnetic field.
STPM 2019 Q18(a)
Sulphur can form various oxides such as and Draw the
Lewis structure of each oxide given. [3]
Answer

MPM reports
In part (a), many candidates were able to draw the Lewis structures of
SO2, SO3 and with octet and/or expanded octet configuration.
Common mistakes made by some candidates are as follows:
• did not show the valence electrons of oxygen atoms or lone pair
electrons of sulphur atom
• did not put the negative formal charge in the Lewis structure of
• did not show the lone pair electrons of S in Lewis structure of
Learning Outcomes :
Candidates should be able to

• explain the existence of coordinate

(dative covalent) bonding as
exemplified by H3O+, NH4+, Al2Cl6
and [Fe(CN)6]3-
• relate bond lengths and bond
strengths with respect to single,
double and triple bonds
• describe typical properties
associated with ionic and covalent
bonding in terms of bond strength,
melting point and electrical
conductivity
 Coordinate (Dative Covalent) Bond
• 1 atom contributes lone pair e to the other atom.
• Donors must have a lone pair of electrons while the
acceptor must have an empty orbital to accommodate
the 2 electrons.

A dative bond is represented by an arrow pointing from the

electron-pair donor to electron-pair acceptor.
 Dimerisation of Al2Cl6
• Aluminium chloride exists as a simple discrete covalent
molecule, AlCl3 in vapour state.

Electron-deficient
compound

13 Al : 3s2 3p1 → 3s1 3p2

• When vapour AlCl3 is cooled, 2 AlCl3 molecules combine

to form a dimer, Al2Cl6 through the formation of two
coordinate bonds. Each Al atom attained octet
configuration.
 Formation of an addition compound
• Ammonia can react with boron trifluoride to give an
addition compound. How ?

Electron-
deficient
 Complex Ions
• Transition metal cations have empty 3d orbitals that
can accept lone pair electrons from ligands (group of
atoms, molecules or ions) to form complex ion.

6 empty orbitals
Hexacyanoferrate(II) ion

3d 4s 3d 4s 4p
Fe2+ : 3d6
STPM 2017 Q5
Aluminium chloride reacts with ammonia in the vapour
phase. Which is true about the reaction?
A Ammonia acts as a Lewis base
B The product formed is an ionic compound
C The enthalpy of reaction is endothermic
D The reaction is irreversible
Bond energy/kJ mol-1 +569 +299 +157 +152

• The strength of covalent bond is

Strength of measured by its bond energy (energy

required to break the covalent bond).

Covalent • A – B(g) → A(g) + B(g) ΔH = positive

Bonds • The shorter the bond length the

stronger the bond. Bond energy ↑.
• Multiple bonds are stronger than the single bonds.
Question
Which of the following pairs of orbitals will produce the
weakest single covalent bond when they overlap?
A 1s and 1s
B 2s and 3s
C 2s and 3p
D 5p and 5p
STPM 2019 Q5
Which ion has the strongest covalent bond?
A
B
C
D
 Properties of covalent compound
• Covalent bonds that holding the atoms are strong but the
van der Waals forces that holding the molecules
together are weak. Mp & bp ↓.

Weak vdW forces

 Properties of covalent compound
• Covalent compounds such as SiO2 & diamond have an
extremely high melting point → giant covalent structure
with strong covalent bond between atoms.
Carbon atom

SiO2 Diamond
 Electrical Conductivity

(non-polar)

𝑯𝑪𝒍 ?
Solubility
STPM 2009/Q5
A compound X with a high melting point dissolves in
water and conducts electricity in molten state.
Compound X most probably could be
A potassium carbonate
B magnesium oxide
C aluminium chloride
D strontium sulphate
STPM 2008/Q7
Coordinate bonds do not exist in
A CO
B BeCl2
C PH4+
D [Fe(CN)6]3−
STPM 2007/Q42
Which species has/have two coordinate bonds ?
1 Al2Cl6
2 NH4+
3 [Fe(CN)6]3−
STPM 2006/Q9
Compounds have either ionic or covalent bonds or both.
Which of the following statements is not true of ionic
bonds ?
A They involve the transfer of one or more electrons
from s, p and d orbitals.
B The strength of the ionic bonds is proportional to the
size of the ions.
C They involve ions with stable electronic
configurations.
D They result in the formation of solid compounds.