CAAM B1 : MODULE 11

Module 11A
Turbine Aeroplane
Aerodynamics, Structures
and Systems

14/09/23
 11.5
Instruments/Avionic
Systems

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 11.5.1
Instrument Systems
(ATA 31)
(L2)

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 Topic

• Introduction
• Pitot Static System:-
– Altimeter,
– Air Speed Indicator,
– Vertical Speed Indicator;

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 Instrument System Classification.
• Instrument must has an ability to capture and convey all of the
information to the pilot in an accurate and easily understood
manner.
• The information are condition of the aircraft, engine,
components, aircraft’s attitude, weather, cabin environment,
navigation and communication.

Instruments are categorize/group for their:-

a. Application or presentation
b. Operation
Category/group according to Application or presentation:-
1. Flight and Navigational Instruments
2. Engine Instruments
3. System Instruments
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 Flight and Navigational Instruments
• Flight instruments is used in controlling the aircraft’s
flight attitude and Navigation instruments are those
that contribute information used by the pilot to guide
the aircraft along a definite course.
• Example: Air Speed Indicator, Compass, Altimeter,
Artificial Horizon, Vertical Speed Indicator, Turn and Slip
Indicator, Clock, etc

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 Engine Instruments
• Designed to measure operating parameters of the
aircraft engine.
• Example: Engine Speed, EPR, Manifold Pressure, EGT,
Vibration, Torque, etc

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 Systems Instruments
• It provide information concerning aircraft system
such as hydraulic, electrical, pressurization etc.
• Voltmeter, Suction Gauge, Flap Position, Landing Gear
are also fall in this category.

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 Instrument Mounting/Layout
• All instrument are mounted/layout on panel to ease of pilot in
viewing it.
• This panel may be mounted vertical or in common practice now
sloped forward at about 15° from the vertical to minimize
parallax error
• The most common arrangement of instrument is called Basic T.
Basic ‘T’ Panel
• Four main instrument, mounted in the shape of ‘T’
• On the top of the T is Airspeed Indicator (left), Attitude Indicator
(center) and Altimeter (right).
• Bottom of the T is Heading Indicator (center).
• Even thought it is called Basic T but normally two extra main
indicator is fitted. Radio Magnetic Indicator or Turn and Slip
Indicator bellow Airspeed Indicator and Vertical Speed Indicator
bellow Altimeter.

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 Electronic/Glass Cockpit Panel
• Consists of six interchangeable Integrated Display Unit which
use cathode ray tube (CRT). This display consist of:-
• Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI)
– displays everything related to the control of aircraft Also
called Primary Flight Display (PFD)
• Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI)
– displays everything related to navigational of aircraft. Also
called Navigation Display (ND)
• Engine Indicating and Crew Alert System (EICAS)
– Used in Boeing. In Airbus it is called Electronic Centralize
Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM).
– displays primary and secondary engine parameters and
systems Warnings and status.

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PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

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 Pitot Static Systems
Layout and Function of Pitot Static Systems
• The pitot static system is a system in which:-
– Pitot pressure (Total) created by the forward motion of the
aircraft.
– Static pressure (Ambient) which is the pressure surrounding
the aircraft.
– Both pressure are sensed and measured to provide speed,
altitude and rate of change of altitude (i.e. vertical speed).
• The basic system consists of:-
– A pitot static tube (probe), usually electrically heated.
– Three primary flight instruments:-
• Airspeed
• Altimeter
• Vertical Speed Indicator
– Pipelines and drain trap
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• Some complex systems have a selector valve for the
alternate static pressure source.
• Water drain traps which is located in the lowest part of
the system must be regularly drained or ice may form
in the pipelines at high altitudes and may cause severe
errors in the indicators.
• An electrical heating element is fitted within the probe
head and a switch in the cockpit to turn on the heater.
• The complexity of this system depends on the type
and size of aircraft, the number of locations at which
primary flight instrument data are required and the
types of instrument.
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• Three main indicators are connected to the pitot static
system by 2 lines, one for the Pitot pressure (dynamic
pressure plus static pressure) and one for the static
(atmospheric) pressure.
• Pitot pressure inlet is at the probe faces into the
direction of flight and Static pressure at the side of the
probe.
• Instruments are connected are:-
– Air Speed Indicator (ASI)
– Altimeter (ALT)
– Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)/Rate Of Climb (ROC)

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 System Components
Pitot Static Probes (Pressure Head)
• It is used to extract Pitot and Static pressure.
• It consists of the following main parts:-
– Heating element
– Static slots
– Pitot tube connection (coded P)
– Static tube connection (coded S)
– Electrical connection
– Drain holes
– Mounting flange.
• It consists of two tubes inside the probe.
• Pitot hole is at the front and Static slot at the side of
the probe.
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• Some aircraft has only Pitot head and for the static it has a
static port/vent located on both side of the aircraft
fuselage to prevent error during aircraft turn.

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 Water Drain Valves
• Used to drained water from the system which has entered by
condensation.
• Failure to ensure that the pipes are free from water may cause
inaccurate indications.
Pipelines
• It is made from aluminum or stainless steel which form the
permanent pipeline systems throughout the aircraft.
• The chosen diameter is related to the distance from the pressure
sources to the instruments to eliminate pressure drops and time
lags.
• It may be of different diameters, e.g. 5/16 inch (”) for pitot pipes
and 3/8” for static pipes.
• They are Identified by color coded tapes spaced at frequent
intervals along the lines.
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System Functional Principle
• Pitot pressure (Pt) and of the static pressure (Ps) is used
by the flight instruments, Air Data Computer, Automatic
Flight Control System, Navigation Systems and Pressure
switches.
• International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) standard
conditions is at sea level the pressure is 1,013.2hPa,
14.7psi or 29.92inHg.
• Dynamic pressure is the difference between the pitot
pressure and the static pressure existing around the
aircraft at any given time.
• Dynamic pressure = Pitot pressure Pt minus Static
pressure Ps.
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 Barometric Instruments
ICAO Standard Atmosphere
• Due to the dynamic behavior of the air masses in the atmosphere the
ICAO standard atmosphere (ISA) has been introduced in order to
provide standard values of the atmosphere.
• The ISA is based on mean values of weather data recorded over many
years.
• It has been internationally accepted as basis for the calibration of all
barometric instruments.
• Standard conditions at mean sea level (MSL) the ISA states that a
temperature of 15°C and an air pressure of 1,013.25 (hPa), 29.92 inHg
or 14.7psi.
• Temperature lapse rate of -2°C per 1,000 feet of increase in altitude
from the sea level to 36,089 feet.
• Temperature remains unchanged at -56.5°C from 36,089 feet, where
the stratosphere begins.
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• 0 ft – press 1013.25mb
temp 15°C.
• Temp drop 1.98°C
every 1000ft.
• 0ft to 36090 -
troposphere
• 36090ft – tropopause,
temp maintain -56.5°C
• 65800ft –temp start
increase.
• 36090ft to 105000ft –
stratosphere
• 105000ft – stratopause
press 8.680mb temp -
44.35°C

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AIRSPEED INDICATOR

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 Airspeed Indicator
• It display the speed at which the aircraft is moving
through the air, regardless of the wind’s direction or
speed.
• They are very sensitive pressure gauges which measure
the difference between the ram (or: impact) pressure
and the static (or: atmospheric) pressure detected by
the pitot static tube.
• The greater the difference between the two pressure
readings, the greater will be the airspeed indication.

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 Definitions
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
• Is the uncorrected airspeed which is directly read from the
indicator.
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
• Is the corrected IAS in order to compensate installation, instrument
and pitot static system errors.
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)
• Is the CAS corrected for compressibility of the air. Actually, the EAS
is found as the ratio between the actual air density and the air
density at sea level in the standard atmosphere (as defined by ISA).
True Airspeed (TAS)
• Is EAS corrected for the actual density altitude, i.e. it is the true
speed of the aircraft relative to the surrounding air.
Mach Number (Mach)
• It indicates the aircraft’s IAS relative to the speed of sound.

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 Description
• It shows the speed of the aircraft relative to the surrounding air.
• A diaphragm is used as the measuring element.
• The indication is based on the measurement of a differential
pressure, resulting from the pressure inside the diaphragm (total
pressure (Pitot) Pt) and inside the housing (static pressure Ps).
• The instrument can be calibrated in:-
– Knots (standard)
– Miles per hour (mph) (obsolete)
– Kilometres per hour (km/h) (e.g. for gliders).
• The pressure sensing element is a metal capsule the interior of
which is connected to the Pitot pressure head Pt via a capillary
tube.
• The static pressure reacted on the capsule exterior and is fed
into the instrument case via the static, connector Ps.

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• A typical airspeed indicator consists of the following
main components:-
– Air tight case
– Capsule
– Pointer drive mechanism
– Temperature compensator (bimetallic strip)
– Pressure connections marked:-
• ’P’ for the pitot pressure pipe
• ’S’ for the static pressure pipe.

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 How does it work
• When aircraft move forward air (Ram
air) will enter the Pitot head and at the
same time static air will enter the static
port.
• The faster the aircraft moves the
pressure inside the Pitot head will Stationary – same pressure. No
capsule expansion
increase. This pressure is called Pitot
pressure
• The higher the aircraft goes the
pressure will decrease.
• Pitot pressure goes in the airspeed
capsule and Static pressure around it.
• Because of the difference pressure in
and around the capsule, it will expand Aircraft move forward –
Pressure difference, capsule
thus indicate the speed of aircraft. expand

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 Speed Term
• Subsonic - Speeds below the speed of sound.
• Supersonic - Speeds above the speed of sound.
• Mach number - Speed of the aircraft relative to the
local speed of sound.
• Critical Mach number - Even though the aircraft may
be subsonic, the airflow over certain parts of the
aircraft may reach supersonic speeds and cause severe
buffeting (Mcrit).

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 Color Markings of Airspeed Indicators
• Many airspeed indicators carry colour markings to
indicate certain minimum, maximum and/or safety
speeds or speed ranges.
• These values depend on the type of aircraft where the
indicator is installed.
• Modern systems may have movable pointers to allow
the pilot to set the pointers to the actual required
values (e.g. in case of loads differing remarkably from
flight to flight).

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ALTIMETER

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 Altimeter
• The purpose is to provide an accurate indication of the
aircraft’s height above a certain predetermined level
(usually above sea level or ground).
• This height is referred to as the ’aircraft’s altitude’.
System Description
• It indicates the barometric pressure altitude of an
aircraft and input with static pressure.
• Static pressure surround the aneroid capsule inside a
airtight case.
• Its function and the scale are based on and adjusted
according to the values of the standard atmosphere
defined by ICAO.
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• A typical barometric altimeter consists of the following
main components:-
– Air tight case with static connection (S)
– Aneroid capsule
– Gear mechanism
– Mechanism with calibration spring
– Temperature compensator bimetallic U shape
– Pointer group (or counter, drum)
– Dial
– Barometric scale with adjusting knob.
• It is simply a barometer that measures the surrounding
air pressure and indicate in terms of altitude
information in feet.

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• Types of indication can be found are the most common
is triple pointer type, single pointer with digital counter
and the single pointer with drum presentation.
• Barometer adjusting knob can be rotated manually and
indicated in millibars (mb) or inches of mercury (inHg)
• By turning the adjusting knob the scale is set to the
prevailing atmospheric pressure, usually either to QFE,
QNE or QNH.

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 Definitions
• International Q code (initiated by ICAO) provides a
short form with standard meanings that are:-
• QFE:- the pressure prevailing at an airfield to get an
altimeter reading of zero on the ground at an airfield.
• QNE:- setting of the ISA standard air pressure at MSL
that is 1013.25mb or 29.92 in Hg to get the pressure
altitude of standard altimeter setting. It is used for
enroute flights at high altitudes.
• QNH:- setting of the prevailing air pressure at Mean
Sea Level (MSL) and it will indicate MSL.

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 Types of Altimeter
• Non-sensitive Altimeter - Single pointer/one capsule.
• Sensitive Altimeter - Multiple pointers consist of
aneroid capsules stack.
• Cabin Altimeter- Indicate cabin altitude (cabin
pressurization Sys).
• Encoding Altimeter - Provide altitude information to
ATC transponder system.
• Servo Altimeter – Electrically operated to overcome lag
error.
• Radio/Radar Altimeter - Measure vertical distance
Above Ground Level (AGL).

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 Servo Altimeter
• To reduce lag error encountered by normal Altimeter.
• Sensor that detect the movement of aneroid capsule consist
of EI bar.
• I bar is attach to the aneroid capsule and E bar is attach to
the cam follower.
• The displacement between the I and E bar will generate the
error signal output from the E bar.
• Error signal is amplified and drive the motor which move
the pointer and at the same time move the worm gear
which move the cam follower.
• Cam follower move the E bar which is align back to the I bar
where there will be no more error signal to be amplified to
drive motor which stop the altimeter pointer.
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The functional principle of a servo altimeter

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 Encoding Altimeter
• Altitude reporting altimeter consists of the following
main components:-
– Air tight case with static (S) and electrical connection
– Two aneroid capsules
– Encoder with amplifier
– Vibrator
– Altitude counter mechanism
– Barometric scale with adjusting knob
– Failure flag.

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• It indicate aircraft’s altitude to the pilot and it sends the
same information to the Air Traffic Control when
required.
• Construction is same as normal altimeter except it
contains an optical encoding system.
• It consists of an optical encoder disc, light sources,
photo transistors, electronic power supplies and an
amplifier.
• Etched on disc are sectors arranged in 10 concentric
rings which alternately pass or block light in
accordance with the 10 bit Gilham code.
• Height signals are provided in steps of 100 feet.
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• 10 light emitting diodes (LEDs) connected in series
energized with a constant DC supply.
• 10 light sensitive Darlington transistors.
• Altitude range from -1,000 feet to +63,000 feet can be
covered.
• Warning flag appears in case of a power failure.

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VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

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 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
• Also called Rate Of Climb (ROC) Indicator.
• Purpose:
– To indicate to the pilot the vertical speed of the
aircraft or rate of climb or dive of an aircraft in feet
per minute.
• Principle of operation
– It measures the rate at which the static pressure
changes.
• Construction
– A metering unit – to established second pressure.
– A differential capsule – sense pressure changes.
– An indicating element using pointer which rotates
over a scale graduated in feet per minute.
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 Vertical Speed Indicator
Operation
• At level flight
– Prevailing static pressure
is admitted to the interior
of the capsule, and also to
the instrument case
through the metering
unit. There is zero
differential across the
capsule and pointer
indicates zero.
– Capsule remain the same
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• When aircraft dive
– Metering unit
maintains case
pressure lower than
capsule pressure,
changing it at the
same rate and
thereby creating a
constant differential
pressure across the
capsule.
– Capsule expand

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• When aircraft climb.
– Metering unit
creates a constant
differential
pressure across
capsule by
maintaining case
pressure higher
than capsule
pressure.
– Capsule compress

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