Vertebrate Chordates

• Endoskeleton
• All vertebrate species possess an internal skeleton that grows with
the animal throughout its life.
• Jawless chordates (agnatha) and cartilaginous fish
(chondrichthyes) retain a skeleton made of cartilage throughout
their lives; all other vertebrate groups have a bony skeleton
Respiration
• Fish are adapted to life in water.
• receive the required oxygen for cellular respiration from their
watery surroundings.
• gills of fish are the respiratory organs.
• Oxygen dissolved in water passes through the vast amount of
surface area on the gills into the bloodstream of the fish and, at
the same time, the carbon dioxide waste collected in the
bloodstream passes through the gills to the fish's exterior.
• Jawless fish and cartilaginous fish have several gill openings while
bony fish possess only one.
Respiration
• Adult amphibians possess small lungs; however, they also rely on the
diffusion of oxygen through their moist skin surface (and inside their
mouths) for respiratory purposes.
• Young amphibians use gills for gas exchange (oxygen and carbon
dioxide).
• Mammals, birds and reptiles all utilize lungs for breathing and
respiration.
Vertebrate Circulation
• Three types of circulatory
pathways exist among the
vertebrates.
Vertebrate Reproduction
• exhibit external and internal fertilization.
• Female fish and frogs, for example, lay clusters of eggs which are fertilized by
the male sperm as it is released directly on the egg cluster.
• there are exceptions: sharks and guppies both give birth to live young.
• Fish and frog young that hatch from eggs must then develop through stages
before reaching adulthood.
• Most land animals undergo internal fertilization.
• In reptiles and birds, the male's sperm is transferred into the female's cloaca (a
holding chamber), after which the sperm swim up the reproductive tract for
fertilization to occur.
• Some land animals lay eggs (reptiles and birds), while others deliver live young.
Reproduction
• Internal embryonic development occurs
only within the mammal group.
• Exceptions to this are the duck-billed
platypus (which possesses a cloaca and lays
eggs) and marsupials such as the kangaroo
which continues development in a pouch
outside the female's body.
Jawless Fish
Jawless Fish: Lampreys and Hagfish
(Agnatha)
• primitive groups of marine vertebrates similar to true fish.
• however, lack both jaws and paired fins.
• roughly 60 species of hagfish and lampreys in the world.
• Larval agnathans use gills to trap food particles (similar to the feeding
method of the lancelets and tunicates).
• Adults possess a circular-toothed outgrowth which they use to drill
into living or dead fish.
Jawless Fish: Lampreys
• free-swimming predators on other fish.
• attach themselves to the side of a living fish and suck the blood of the
victim.
• hatch in freshwater and then migrate to the sea, though many live
their lives entirely in freshwater.
• must return to freshwater to reproduce.
• have greatly reduced the Great Lakes' fish populations since they
were introduced in the early 1900s.
Hagfish
• have no eyes and four or six short tentacles around their mouths.
• A toothed tongue enables them to attack dead or dying fish, drilling a
hole through which they suck out the contents.
• exhibit an odd habit of tying themselves into knots, enabling them to
shed their protective slime coat and make a new one.
Cartilaginous Fish
Chondrichthyes: Cartilaginous Fish
• possess an endoskeleton made up entirely of cartilaginous tissue;
• teeth, and in some cases, the vertebrae, are hardened with calcium
salts, but this calcified cartilage is not true bone.
• exhibit five to seven gill slits on the sides of their body.
• The tough skin is covered with tooth-like scales, making it feel like
sandpaper.
Chondrichthyes: Cartilaginous Fish
• Unlike bony fish, cartilaginous fish have thick, fleshy fins.
• Their tails are heterocercal, divided into two lobes, with the vertebrae
extending into the elongated upper lobe.
• There are approximately 850 species of rays, skates and sharks in the
world:
Chondrichthyes: Cartilaginous Fish
• Sharks, skates and rays reproduce by passing sperm from the male to
the female by means of the male's modified fins, called claspers.
• Rays are viviparous (live bearing) while skates are oviparous (egg
laying), releasing their eggs in hard, black cases sometimes called
"mermaid´s purses."
• These egg cases can often be found washed up on the beach.
Sharks
• Most sharks are viviparous, yet there are some sharks who do lay
eggs (the dogfish shark, for example).
• During copulation, sharks meet face to face to allow the male to
insert one of his claspers into the cloaca of the female.
• Sperm contained within sperm packets (spermatophores) are
delivered to the female via a groove in the clasper..
Bony Fish
Osteichthyes: Bony Fish
• make up the most numerous vertebrate group with over 25,000
species, living in both fresh and saltwater environments.
• endoskeleton is made up of mostly bone, with some cartilaginous
material.
• skeleton is much stiffer than that of the cartilaginous fish because it is
reinforced by calcium salts.
• The operculum, the flap on each side of the fish that covers the
chambers housing the gills, allows a bony fish to breathe without
swimming, simply by moving the operculum in and out.
Osteichthyes: Bony Fish
• have paired fins, have a symmetrical tail fin (homocercal), many
teeth, dermal scales in the skin (in most species), and numerous
vertebrae.
• have an excellent sense of smell (like cartilaginous fish), but bony fish
also possess keen eyesight.
• remain buoyant in water due to their swim bladders (a gas-filled
chamber).
• Some fish have a connection between this organ and the digestive
tract to allow the extraction of oxygen.
Osteichthyes: Bony Fish
• The fish species that most people eat are the ray-finned fish (the
largest subgroup within the bony fish);
• possess membranous fins supported by multiple rays and have
scales that are formed from bone.
• include herring, cod, mackerel, shad, tuna, salmon, trout, capelin,
swordfish, gaspereau, bass, pike, pickerel and whitefish.
• Only one species of lobe-finned fish, the coelacanth, still lives. It has
muscular fins supported by bones.
More on Bony Fish
• diverse in their modes of feeding and food preferences.
• They are herbivores, carnivores, omnivores or detritivores.
• Many are predaceous, some are filter feeders, while others are quite
specialized depending on diet.
• have a short, yet expandable esophagus for swallowing large food items.
• At the end of the stomach, most bony fish have finger-like pouches
(pyloric caeca) which serve to increase the surface area in the gut for
more digestion.
• Most nutrient absorption occurs in the intestine before wastes are
excreted through the anus.
More on Bony Fish
• may undergo either external or internal fertilization, depending on
species.
• Most species are oviparous, yet there are viviparous and ovoviparous
species.
• Ovoviparous species, such as guppies, keep internally fertilized eggs
within the female body.
• The eggs nourish the embryos before the young are born "live".
A Key Evolutionary Link: Tiktaalik roseae
• The moment when the very first fish ventured out onto land is considered to be one of
the greatest evolutionary events in Earth's history.
• In 2004, on Ellesmere Island, in the Canadian Arctic, a 375 million year old fossil fish
was discovered by a team of six paleontologists lead by Neil Shubin.
• Tiktaalik roseae looks like a cross between the primitive fish it lived amongst and the
first four-legged animals (tetrapods).
• According to Shubin, the "fishapod" Tiktaalik lived about 12 million years before the
first tetrapods (which are approximately 363 million years old).
• It represents the best-known transitional species between fish and land-dwelling
tetrapods.
• The discovery of Tiktaalik revealed that the evolution of hind legs actually began as
enhanced hind fins.
Tiktaalik roseae
• 6-minute video: Finding Tiktaalik
• Scientists are very excited when these discoveries are made.
• It is possible to trace the origins of the human body through the DNA
of living animals as well as the fossil evidence of long-extinct species
such as Tiktaalik roseae.
Amphibia
Amphibia: Salamanders, Frogs and Toads
• Frogs, toads, newts and salamanders are all able, at various times in
their lives, to live in either aquatic or terrestrial habitats.
• The word amphibian means "double life."
• There are approximately 4,000 species of amphibians, including a few
species of caecilian worm-like subterranean diggers.
• Amphibians are tetrapods with webbed feet.
Amphibia: Salamanders, Frogs and Toads
• smooth, scale-less skin.
• Dermal glands secrete mucous to aid in the reduction of water loss in
the terrestrial environment.
• Many also possess venom glands that secrete poisonous or toxic
substances to aid with protection against predators (toads, for
example).
Amphibia: Reproduction
• are dioecious and fertilization may be internal or external.
• Most are oviparous.
• Their eggs are anamniotic (without a shell), and because the eggs will
dry out quickly in the air, amphibians are tied to a water habitat.
• Their eggs are covered with a series of protective gelatinous layers.
• Hundreds of eggs are laid at a time.
• Aquatic larval forms hatch, breathing by gills and feeding mostly on
plant material.
Amphibia: Respiration
• Respiration in amphibians is accomplished through several methods.
• They start life in the water, breathing via gills, becoming air breathers
on land as adults (with lungs).
• Gas exchange through moist skin (cutaneous respiration) also occurs
in most species—the water-permeable skin allows oxygen to diffuse
through it.
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide may also diffuse through the thin, moist
lining of their mouths.
Amphibia: Salamanders, Frogs and Toads
• Amphibians possess a three-chambered heart, consisting of two
upper chambers (atria) and one lower chamber (ventricle).
• Like fish, amphibians are "cold-blooded animals" (ectothermic)—they
depend on external sources of heat to regulate their body
temperatures.
Amphibian Orders
• Amphibian orders include salamanders, frogs and toads.
• Salamanders (Order Caudata)
• Frogs and Toads (Order Anura)
3j--Assignment: Frog Dissection
• In this assignment, you will view dissection videos and photographs to
learn about the external and internal anatomy of the frog.
Reptilia
Reptilia: Lizards, Snakes, Crocodiles and
Turtles
• Most of the 7,000 species of reptiles live in tropical areas and deserts.
• Some are terrestrial (snakes, lizards) while others are mostly aquatic
(turtles, alligators).
• Lizards are the most numerous and diverse reptilian species.
• All have a thick, scaly keratinous skin that is impermeable to water.
• shed their skin several times a year.
Reptilia: Lizards, Snakes, Crocodiles and
Turtles
• cannot "breathe" through waterproof scaly skin so possess fairly well-
developed lungs with branched bronchiole tubes, and a rib cage for
protection.
• Some turtles, however, do use the moist surfaces of their cloaca for gas
exchange.
• have teeth adapted for holding prey, rather than chewing, because most
reptiles swallow their prey whole.
• Many snakes can dislocate their jaws enabling them to eat prey larger than
themselves.
• Reptiles have good hearing and vision.
• tongue is used for smell as well as taste.
Reptilia: Lizards, Snakes, Crocodiles and
Turtles
• Like fish and amphibians, reptiles are ectothermic.
• by heating their bodies directly with solar energy (rather than
through using their own metabolism), reptiles can survive on less
than 10% of the calories required by a mammal of equivalent size.
• fertilization is internal before the shell layer forms around the egg.
Reptilia: Lizards, Snakes, Crocodiles and
Turtles
• Most are oviparous but some species of snakes and lizards do bear
live young.
• Reptilian eggs are amniotic, that is, surrounded by a fluid-filled shell
for protection against desiccation in dry land environments.
• The development of the amniotic egg was key in allowing animals
to leave aquatic habitats and begin living on land
Do you know what the difference is between a
crocodile and an alligator?
Birds
Aves: Birds
• The first avian feature you most likely think of is feathers.
• Avian feathers are a modified form of reptilian scales.
• It is believed that birds are the closest reptilian relatives—they share
many common features including shell-covered eggs, leg scales, clawed
toes and even body shape.
• There are close to 9,000 species of birds in the world.
• exhibit a spectacular array of feather colour, flying style, beak and foot
shape as well as body size and shape.
• behaviour is complex, especially as it pertains to territoriality, courtship,
breeding, nest-building and the rearing of young.
Aves: Birds
• Most fly EXCEPT ostriches, kiwis and emus
• Penguins are not considered flightless birds since they "fly"
underwater!
• able to regulate their body temperature internally—they are, therefore,
referred to as being warm-blooded or endothermic.
• use their own metabolic heat to maintain a warm, constant body
temperature.
• can remain active during colder winter months.
• Feathers, as well as aiding with flight, help to minimize heat loss and
insulate birds from the cold.
Adaptations for Flight
• Front limbs are modified into wings that act as airfoils—structures whose shape
creates lift by changing air currents.
• Individual feathers are precisely manipulated to control air movements around
the wing.
• Powerful flight muscles attach to large breast bones.
• Each contraction of the pectoral muscles allows the wings to "flap."
• Hollow bones reduce overall body weight.
• The frigate bird, for example—with a wing span of more than 2 metres, weighs in
at only 115g!
• The honeycombed structure of avian bones allows them to be strong despite
being mostly hollow
Adaptations for Flight
• Overall body weight is reduced further through the
absence of some internal organs
• females possess one ovary instead of two.
• lack teeth
• food is ground up in the gizzard (near the stomach)
• As a result of being able to fly, birds have also
developed excellent eyesight for spotting specific
flowers, small insects or other prey species (such as
rodents or even other birds) from great distances in
the air.
The Avian Circulatory System
• has also adapted for the added energy requirement of flight.
• A one-way air flow through the lungs (with the help of air sacs)
enables birds to extract the greatest amount of oxygen possible with
each breath.
• Tubes leading from the lungs to the air sacs help dissipate excess heat
as well as reduce overall body density.
• The avian circulatory system (with a four-chambered heart) is quite
efficient.
The image below shows what happens when a bird
inhales.
3k--Self assessment Echinoderms and
Chordates
Mammals
Mammalia: The Mammals
• evolved to inhabit a wide range of environments and include about
5000 species grouped within 26 orders.
• inhabit every terrestrial biome and many are at least partially aquatic.
• Seals, sea lions, walruses, otters, beavers and muskrats and many
other species live near lakes, streams or oceanic coastlines.
• Whales and dolphins are fully aquatic and can be found in all oceans
of the world (and some rivers).
• All breathe with well-developed lungs; therefore, even fully aquatic
species need to surface for air periodically.
Mammalia: The Mammals
• endothermic.
• Hair and sweat glands also help them to control internal body
temperature.
• developed various life history strategies and many adaptations to take
advantage of different habitats and lifestyles.
• All are tetrapods, yet mammals fly, glide, swim, run, burrow and
jump.
• possess a four-chambered heart.
The Mammals
• vast diversity of forms.
• Shrews and bats can weigh as little as 3 grams, while the blue
whale—the largest mammal—can weigh 160,000 kilograms.
• Most are viviparous, bearing live young.
• Some offspring are precocious (ready to live on their own soon after
birth), while others are cared for by parents for extended periods of
time.
• All possess four different types of teeth that are fixed into sockets of
the jaw bone.
Unique Mammalian Characteristics

• Mammals share at least three characteristics not found in any other

animals.
• All mammals possess
• hair (fur) Mammalian hair is present in all mammals at some point during their
development. Hair helps to insulate, aid with the sense of touch and functions in
colour patterning.
• milk-producing mammary glands All female mammals nourish newborn offspring
with milk that is produced in mammary glands. Most female mammals invest a
great deal of energy caring for offspring.
• three middle ear bones The three middle ear bones, the hammer (malleus), anvil
(incus) and stirrup (stapes) function in the transmission of vibrations from the
eardrum to the inner ear. These ear bones enhance hearing by amplifying sound.
Mammalian Classification
• Mammalian classification reflects the three main variations in
reproduction: laying eggs, bearing live young (placental) and bearing
live young (marsupial).
• Of the egg-laying mammals, one order (Monotremata) exists,
containing only three species.
• include the duck-billed platypus and two echnida (spiny anteater)
species.
• lay eggs; however, they feed their newborn with mammary gland
secretions.
• have only one opening for excretion and reproduction.
Mammalian Classification
• All other mammals bear live young.
• In eutherian, or placental mammals, an umbilical cord and placenta
connects the unborn children to the uterine wall.
• Fetuses are both nourished and protected.
• In metatherian, or marsupial mammals, mothers bear babies at a
much more immature stage as their placentas are much less efficient
in nurturing fetuses.
• development continues outside the body of the mother in a
marsupium, or "pouch".
• Almost all marsupials are native to Australia and New Guinea.
Mammalian Classification
• Not surprisingly, biologists do not agree on how some mammalian
orders and families are related to one another.
Eutherian/placental mammals
even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)
dolphins, porpoises and whales (Cetacea)
carnivores (Carnivora)
bats (Chiroptera)
flying lemurs (Dermoptera)
hyraxes (Hyracoidea)
insectivores (Insectivora)
hares, pikas and rabbits (Lagomorpha)
elephant-shrews (Macroscelidea)
horses, rhinoceroses and tapirs (Perissodactyla)
pangolins (Pholidota)
primates (Primates)
elephants (Proboscidea)
rodents (Rodentia)
tree shrews (Scandentia)
dugongs, manatees and sea cows (Sirenia)
aardvarks (Tubulidentata)
edentates (Xenartha)
 Metatherian/marsupial mammals
• dasyuroid and carnivorous marsupials (Dasyuromorphia)
American marsupials (Didelphimorphia)
kangaroos, possums, wallabies and relatives (Diprotodontia)
monito del monte (Microbiotheria)
marsupial moles (Notoryctemorphia)
shrew opossums (Paucituberculata)
bandicoots and bilbies (Peramelemorphia)
Comparing Chordates
• Since most vertebrates possess a hard body structure (skeleton), an
extensive fossil record has been left behind for study by scientists.
• It is believed that all chordates today share a common invertebrate
ancestor.
• The cladogram next shows the evolution of several vertebrate
features such as jaws and paired appendages and lungs.
• It is interesting to note that while the six fish groups all have separate
(and lengthy) evolutionary paths, the other chordate groups each
share more recent common ancestors.
Comparing Chordates
• As each new feature evolved, a rapid diversification of species, or adaptive
radiation, occurred.
• i.e. development of an amniotic egg (one surrounded by a fluid-filled
shell for protection against drying out) allowed for organisms to move
from an aquatic habitat to a completely terrestrial environment.
• Sometimes adaptive radiation results in unrelated species developing very
similar features.
• referred to as convergent evolution.
• i.e. both birds and bats developed flight as an adaptation for their
particular environments yet they are not considered to be all that
closely-related.
3l--Activity: Molluscs to Chordates!
3m--M3 Kingdom 2 Quiz part 2 Animals