Data Management & Presentation

Objectives
• Define the term data
• Discuss the types of data and various methods
of data collection.
• Discuss the different means and interpretation
of data presentation through:
• Graphs,
• Tables,
• Charts.
 Data
DATA are informations which may lead to an answer or a
solution to a particular question or a problem
OR
Collection of information in numerical form.
(Data are numerical facts)
OR
The values of observations recorded for variables
OR
Informations,coming from observations, counts,
measurements,or response (Singular = datum)
VARIABLE a variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies.
 Types of Data
1.Quantitative data
Numerical data that you can add, subtract, multiply, and divide
Numerical values, often with units of measurement
Examples:
• Age (possible units: years)
• Blood pressure (mm of Hg)
• BMI (kg/m2)
• Pulse (beats/minute)
• Annual income (possible units: thousands of PKR)
• Number of children (count therefore no other units)
• Optimism on a 0 to 100 scale
• Exercise in hours per week
• Coffee drinking in ounces per day
 Types of Data
2.Qualitative Data
Also called categorical data
• When the data are arranged in categories on the basis of
their quality or attribute and there is gap between two values,
it is called qualitative data, e.g name, religion, marital status,
socioeconomic status, awareness.
• Qualitative data cannot be expressed in numerical forms.
 Source of Data Collection

• Routinely kept records

• External sources
• Natural observation :
• Survey
• Case study :
• Experiment :
 Source of Data Collection
Routinely kept records
It is difficult to imagine any type of organization that
does not keep records of day-to-day transactions of
its activities. Hospital medical records, for example,
contain immense amounts of information on
patients, while hospital accounting records contain
a wealth of data on the facility’s business activities.
When the need for data arises, we should look for
them first among routinely kept records.
 Source of Data Collection
External sources
The data needed to answer a question may already exist in
the form of published reports, commercially available
data banks, or the research literature. In other words, we
may find that someone else has already asked the same
question, and the answer obtained may be applicable to
our present situation.
 Source of Data Collection
• Natural observation :
– Go out into the field and observe phenomena (People,
animal), and if possible without interfering with the
phenomena itself
 Source of Data Collection
• Survey
– It is also kind of observational study. You are just
collecting information without having any control
 Source of Data Collection
• Case study :
– One unusual individual is intensively studied
 Source of Data Collection
• Experiment :
– Where one variable is deliberately manipulated. It is a
kind of research plan that have another group called
controls.
 Data Presentation
• Summarize data in an informative and accurat
e way
• Help reader grasp the key feature of the data
• The goal is have a graphic that is simple, easy
to understand, and
most effective in presenting the data to the ge
neral public.
 Presentation of Data
• Statistical data are generally presented by:

 Tables
- Frequency table
- Cross-tabulation
 Graphs
- For Qualitative data
- For Quantitative data

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 Presentation of qualitative Data by Table

- A Psychologist asked a list of questions to measure the level of Anxiety and

Depression in the patient. In one of the question she asked:
“Have you had lack of interest in your daily activities during past two
weeks?”
Code: 0=Never; 1=few times; 2=often; 3=Always
The responses of 20 randomly selected patients for the above question
were:

Few times; Always; Never; Often;

Often; Often; Always; Few times;
Often; Always; Often; Never;
Always; Often; Always; Often;
Often; Few times; Often; Always;

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 Presentation of Qualitative Data by Table

________________________________________________________________
Response Frequency Relative
Frequency_
Tally Number of
Marks Patients Proportion

Never II 2 2/20=0.10
Few Times III 3 3/20=0.15
Often IIIIIIII 9 9/20=0.45
Always IIIII 6 6/20=0.30
_________________________________________________________________
Total 20 1.00

Note: Relative frequency can also be presented in times of percentage by

multiplying 100.

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Presentation of Quantitative Data by Table

Problem Description:
The class of 2004 at the Isra University conducted a
baseline sample survey at Rehri Goth for the
Emergency obstetric care project. As the baseline
information, the students also asked about the
number of living children per women (15-49 years).
The following data has been collected based on a
random sample of n=30 woman.

2,2,5,3,0,1,3,2,3,4,1,3,4,5,7,
3,2,4,1,0,5,8,6,5,4, 2,4,4,7,6
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 Presentation of Quantitative Data by
Table
Number of Cumulative
Living children Tally Frequency Frequency

0 II 2 2
1 III 3 5
2 IIII 5 10
3 IIII 5 15
4 IIIII 6 21
5 IIII 4 25
6 II 2 27
7 II 2 29
8 I 1 30
_______________________________________________
Total 30

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 What happened when you have a lot of
different observation?
Problem description:
A sample survey was conducted in a squatter (thicker, unlawful
residents, shorter) settlement of Karachi, the households
were asked about the average monthly amount (in Rs.) spent
on health by them? The following data was collected based
on random sample of n=25 households.

90,75,140,80,60,55,105,70,298,180,105,
130,145,150,270,235,125,245,100,205,50,
85,160,275,194.

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 Steps to summarize the into
Frequency Distribution Table
The following steps should be taken:
Step 1: compute the interval spanned by the
data. We can obtain this interval by arranging
the data into an array, a listing all observations
from smallest to Largest.

50,55,60,70,80,85,90,100,105,105,125,130,140
145,150,160,180,194,205,235,245,270,275,298
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• Step 2: Divide the range into an arbitrary number but
usually equal and non-overlapping segments (each data
value belonging to one and only one segments) called class
intervals. The number of intervals depends on the number of
observations but in general should range from 5 to 15.
Suppose we want to group the data into five non-overlapping
classes
Approximate Class Width =
Largest data value – Smallest data value
Number of Classes
298 -50 = 248 = 49.6
5 5
Rounding up, we choose to create five classes of width of 50
each

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 Expenditure on Tally Frequency Relative
Health (Rs.) Cumulative
Frequency
50-99 IIIIIII 08 8/25= 0.32
100-149 IIIIII 07 0.60
150-199 IIII 04 0.76
200-249 III 03 0.88
250-299 III 03 1.00
Total 25

Note: Relative Frequency can also be presented in terms of percentage

by multiplying 100
Class Lower Upper Midpoint Frequency Relative Cumulative Cum. Rel.
Limit Limit Frequency Frequency Frequency
0 62 66 64 0 0 0 0
1 66 70 68 1 0.01 1 0.01
2 70 74 72 0 0 1 0.01
3 74 78 76 0 0 1 0.01
4 78 82 80 2 0.02 3 0.03
5 82 86 84 8 0.08 11 0.11
6 86 90 88 5 0.05 16 0.16
7 90 94 92 14 0.14 30 0.3
8 94 98 96 18 0.18 48 0.48
9 98 102 100 11 0.11 59 0.59
10 102 106 104 18 0.18 77 0.77
11 106 110 108 6 0.06 83 0.83
12 110 114 112 8 0.08 91 0.91
13 114 118 116 5 0.05 96 0.96
14 118 122 120 3 0.03 99 0.99
15 122 126 124 1 0.01 100 1
16 126 130 128 0 0 100 1
17 130 134 132 0 0 100 1
18 134 138 136 0 0 100 1
19 138 142 140 0 0 100 1
20 142 146 144 0 0 100 1
21 146 150 0 0 100 23 1
Presentation of Data by Cross Tabulation

Cross tabulation (or crosstabs for short):

It is a statistical process that summarizes categorical data to
create a contingency table.. They provide a basic picture of the
interrelation between two variables and can help find
interactions between them.

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 Sample # Gender Handedness
1 Female Right-handed
2 Male Left-handed
3 Female Right-handed
4 Male Right-handed
5 Male Left-handed
6 Male Right-handed
7 Female Right-handed
8 Female Left-handed
9 Male Right-handed
10 Female Right-handed

:
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26
 Cross-Tabulation
Contingency table
Left handed Right handed total

Males 2 3 5

Females 1 4 5

total 3 7 10

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 Graphs
• Graphs are Geometrical designs:

- Convey information at a glance

- Mathematically less sophisticated (no formula
used, no calculations)

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 Graphical Presentation of Quantitative
Data
• Histogram
• Frequency Polygon
• Stem and Leaf

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 Conti
Histogram
• Used for Quantitative, Continuous, Variables.
• It is used to present variables which have no
gaps e.g age, weight, height, blood pressure,
blood sugar etc.
• It consist of a series of blocks. The class
intervals are given along horizontal axis and
the frequency along the vertical axis.
• Histogram
– Similar to bar chart 
bars closely situated
– # of bars?
• Too few  data
clumps
• Too many  overly
detailed

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 HISTOGRAM
14

12
FREQUENCY INDIVIDUALS

10

Std. Dev = 10.06

2
Mean = 57.7
0 N = 50.00
35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0

AGE

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 Conti…
Frequency polygon
Frequency polygon is an area diagram of frequency
distribution over a histogram. It is a linear
representation of a frequency table and histogram,
obtained by joining the mid points of the hitogram
blocks. Frequency is plotted at the central point of a
group
percentage
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STEM & LEAF GRAPH

35
STEM & LEAF GRAPH
Graphical Presentation of Qualitative Data

• Simple Bar chart

• Multiple Bar chart
• Component Bar Chart
• Sliding Bar Chart (e.g. Population Pyramid)
• Pie Chart

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 80
BAR CHART

70
Frequency

60

50
Male Female

Sex

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 MULTIPLE BAR CHART (VERTICAL)
60

50
ASCITES

40

30

Ascites
20
Yes

10 No
Male Female

GENDER

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SLIDING BAR CHART

40
 PIE CHART

Figure 2.3 Pie chart showing the number of students of each category
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 References
Biostatistics by Prem P. Panta
Fundamentals of Research Methodology and
Statistics by Yogesh k. Singh
Research Design by J. W. Creswell
Internet