MAJORSHIP BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

RUTHER FRANCIS TABLATE, LPT

COMMON CONVERSIONS
CELL CYCLE
 WHAT IS CELL CYCLE?

 It is a process in which a cell grows and

divides to create a copy of itself.

 Used to allow the organism to grow, and to

replace cells as they grow worn out.
G1 phase - growth and synthesis
S phase - DNA synthesis phase
G2 phase - Preparation for division
M phase - M phase includes the
overlapping processes of mitosis and
cytokinesis
Gap phase 1 begins at the completion of
mitosis and cytokinesis and lasts until
the beginning of S phase. This phase is
generally the longest of the four cell
cycle phases and is quite variable in
length. During this phase, the cell
chooses either to replicate its
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or to exit
the cell cycle and enter a quiescent state
(the G0 phase).
 S PHASE
Replication of the chromosomes is restricted
to one specific portion of interphase, called S
phase (DNA synthesis phase), which typically
lasts about 6 h. In mammalian cells, the start
of S phase—the actual initiation of DNA
synthesis—takes place several hours after the
cell has committed to carrying out DNA
synthesis. During S phase, each chromosome
replicates exactly once to form a pair of
physically linked sister chromatids. In animal
cells, a pair of centrioles is also duplicated
during S phase.
 G2 PHASE
The portion of interphase that
follows S phase is called gap
phase 2. Some cells can exit the
cell cycle from G2 phase, just
as they can from G1 phase.
Combination of these three phases is known
as interphase.
 M PHASE
M phase includes the
overlapping processes
of mitosis and
cytokinesis
 MITOSIS

A type of cell division that

results in two daughter cells
each having the same number
and kind of chromosomes as
the parent nucleus, typical of
ordinary tissue growth.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
telophase
Representation of mitosis stages
 PROPHASE
DNA becomes visible
as chromosomes
Nuclear
membrane
dissolves
Centrioles
migrate to
opposite poles

 PROMETAPHASE

 It is the phase of mitosis

following prophase and
preceding metaphase, in
eukaryotic cells.
 It is included as part of
the end of prophase and
early metaphase
 METAPHASE

Spindle fibers attach to

centromeres
Chromosomes line up
at midline of the cell
 ANAPHASE
•Spindle fibers pull
apart centromeres
•One chromatid goes to each
centriole (they look like V’s)
 TELOPHASE

• Two new nuclei form.

• Chromosomes appear as
chromatin (threads rather
than rods).
• Mitosis ends.
 CYTOKINESIS
occurs after mitosis

• Cell membrane moves inward to

create two daughter cells – each with
its own nucleus with identical
chromosomes.
 GENETICS
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation.
Heredity is the transmission of genes from parents to
offspring.
A gene is a section of a chromosome that controls
what traits any living thing will have and the traits
that will pass on to it’s offspring.
Traits are any characteristic passed from parents to
children.
How are traits passed on?

Remember that the body cells have 46 chromosomes.

Sex cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Half your
genes come from your mother and half from your
father.
Every individual has a different combination of
genes making each person unique from one another.
From a long time no one understood how traits
were inherited, until about a hundred years ago when
an Austrian monk tinkered in his garden and observed
his peas.
Gregor Johann Mendel
Father of Modern Genetics

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) was an

Austrian monk of the Augustinian order.
He was the first to formulate the Laws of
Heredity. His experiment on garden peas
in the monastery garden laid the
foundation on the laws of heredity. He
was born in Heinzendorf, Austria, and got
interested in science at an early age. He
entered an Augustinian monastery in
Brunn after two years of philosophical
studies.
Gregor Johann Mendel
Father of Modern Genetics
He was sent to study in the University
of Vienna, taking up Physics, Chemistry,
Mathematics, Botany and Zoology. When
he went back to Brunn, he taught in a
technical high school where he began his
experiments with garden peas. He
cultivated and tested at least 28 000 pea
plants, analyzing inheritance pattern and
characteristics of seven
Gregor Johann Mendel
Father of Modern Genetics
Pairs of seeds. He also got into
hybridization, experimenting whether
new plants species can be formed through
it. He published his work on heredity in
1866. His work on hybridization of
hawkweed—Hieracium, was published
later. His work was not given importance
until 1900, sixteen years after his death,
when Hugo De Vries and other two
scientists independently obtained the
same result as his.
 What could be the reason why Mendel
selected the peas?

A. Garden peas have several contrasting

characteristics.
The following is the summary of the different traits
and characters. Trait is the general characteristics
of
the peas (Ex: shape of the seed) while character is
the specific characteristics. (Ex: smooth or wrinkled
seed.)
 Traits Characters Observed
Flowers color Purple White
Flowers Axial Terminal
position
Seed color Yellow Green
Seed shape Round Wrinkled
Pod shape Inflated Constricted
Pod color Green Yellow
Stem length Tall Dwarf
B. Garden peas reproduce at a fast rate. They
reproduce several generations in a short time.
C. They are hardy plants. They do not need much
caring
D. One very special feature of these plants is its
structural adaptation of self-pollination. The keel
encloses the anthers and stigma of the flower.
What are the 3 Mendelian’s Laws of
Inheritance?

* The Law of Dominance

* The Law of Segregation
* The Law of Independent Assortment
 The Law of Dominance

Peas are capable of self-pollination. Mendel’s first

experiment was crossbreeding different types of peas. He
first covered the flowers with a bag to prevent the pollen
of other plants from transferring to the plant under study.
He studied the different traits .He found out that the
traits of the offsprings are the same as the parent plant
for several generations. A purple flower plant produced
the same purple flowers. He called them purebreeding or
truebreeding.
 The Law of Dominance
The next experiment involved true breeding plants to cross
pollinate. The parent generation is known as P1 while the
offspring of P1 cross are known as the first filial or F1 generatio

How was this done? When the stigma of one plant was no
yet mature or ripe, he removed the anthers and using a brush
transferred the pollen grains from a pure breeding plant to
another with contrasting character. For example, a green pod
plant is pollinated with yellow pod plant. He did the same with
other contrasting characters. These are the P1 generation. The
seeds from these cross pollinated plants were planted.
 He found out that the offspring of the cross pollinated purebred
produced only one of the characters. He called the character
dominant and the other character that did not show, recessive.
From the experiment, he formulated the Law of Dominance, which
states that,” when pure breeding plants having contrasting
characters are crossed, all the offsprings will show only one of the
characters. The character that appears is dominant and the one
that does not is recessive.”

The offspring of crosses between parents of contrasting

characters were called homozygous dominant. For example:
flower color: purple and white. The dominant trait is labeled as
GG. The recessive trait is labeled as gg( homozygous recessive).
The hybrid (or heterozygous) is labeled Gg. G represents the
dominant allele while g represents the recessive allele.
 An allele is a gene that can exist in contrasting forms.
There are two alleles ( or allelic pair or gene pair) for one
trait. The crosses involving only one trait. Example: color of
the pod, is called monohybrid crosses.

Mendel used symbols for the characters to make it

easier to analyze. Another example is seed color: round
and wrinkled. For round, he used R and for wrinkled, he
used r. Pure breeding P1 with round seed is designated,
RR and with wrinkled seed, rr.
Legend
R - round
r - wrinkled

RR rr P1

r F1
R

Rr
All offsprings with round seeds
 The Law of Segregation
Mendel continued on his cross hybridization. This
time, he crossed a hybrid Rr. This is a P2 cross. The F2
generation produced the following:

Rr Rr
P2

R r R r

RR Rr Rr rr F2
 The results of P2 crosses indicated more offsprings
with round seeds than with wrinkled seeds. A parent
with two genes of an Rr trait may be represented with a
coin with two sides (head and tail). The probability of
getting a head is ½. The probability of getting an R is also
½. From this, he formulated The Law of Segregation. It
states that, “ the two genes of a pair separate or
segregate during gamete formation . Therefore , the
traits are distributed.”
 A sex cell has only one allele per trait. The offspring may or
may not show a particular trait., depending on which gene
(dominant or recessive) is received. After the time of Mendel,
phenotype and genotype were used. Phenotype stands for
external appearance of the individual. In the given example, RR
and Rr have round seeds while rr has wrinkled seed. The
phenotypic ratio is 3:1.Genotype stands for the gene composition
of the individual. RR is homozygous for round seed. The Rr is
heterozygous for round seed and it is homozygous for wrinkled
seed. Genotype differentiates individuals with same outside
appearance but different internal composition of genes. The
genotypic ratio for the given example is 1:2:1. The more offspring,
the greater the probability of exact genetic and phenotypic ratios
in actual crosses.
The Punnett Square
The Punnett square is a device used to show the combination
of gametes. This was named after Reginald Punnett, a British
geneticist.
The outer single letters on top represents gametes of male
parent. The others written at the left side represent the female
parent. The double letters represent the offsprings.

R r

R RR Rr

r Rr rr
The Law of Independent Assortment
The next series of experiments Mendel did was crossbreeding
two pairs of contrasting (dihybrid cross) traits to determine how the
trait of one gene will affect the inheritance of the genes of another
trait. He used a true breed round, yellow pea plant with another
true breed wrinkled green pea plant. The plant produced produced
a round, yellow offspring. He inferred that the offspring was hybrid.
Another experiment involved crossbreeding of two hybrid plants
in the F2 generation. He wanted to prove if the trait for seed color
will have influence on seed shape trait. The F 2 generation produced
four types: round yellow, round green, wrinkled yellow, and
wrinkled green. The result was that the dominant trait of one
(round shape) did not affect the recessive trait of another
kind(green color). Therefore, the green color (recessive) can appear
in both round and green.
These observations led to the formulation of The Law of
Independent Assortment- which states that “ the expression of
one particular trait does not affect the expression of another
trait.” Simply stated, the seed color trait does not affect the
shape of the seed.
RR rr
RY RY P1 YY yy
Legend:
R – round
RrYy RrYy
r – wrinkled ry
Y – yellow
y - green
RrYy RrYy R r
ry
Y y

Rr
F1 Yy

All round, yellow offsprings

 Dihybrid Cross is a cross that shows the possible
offspring for two traits.

Fur Color: Coat Texture:

B: Black R: Rough
b: White r: Smooth
 BbRr x BbRr

Possible gametes:
BR
Br
bR
br
Next, arrange all possible gametes for one parent
along the top of your Punnett Square, and all possible
gametes for the other parent down the side of your
Punnett Square…
 BbRr x BbRr

Fur Color: Coat Texture:

B: Black R: Rough
b: White r: Smooth

Then, find the possible genotypes of the offspring

 BR Br bR br

BR

Br

bR

br
 BR Br bR br
BBRR BBRr BbRR BbRr
BR
BBRr BBrr BbRr Bbrr
Br
BbRR BbRr bbRR bbRr
bR
BbRr Bbrr bbRr bbrr
br
Questions…
* How many of the offspring would have a black, rough
coat?
* How many of the offspring would have a black,
smooth coat?
* How many of the offspring would have a white,
rough coat?
* How many of the offspring would have a white,
smooth coat?
How many of the BR Br bR br
offspring would have
BBRR BBRr BbRR BbRr
black, rough coat?
BR
How many of the
BBRr BBrr BbRr Bbrr
offspring would have a Br
black, smooth coat?
BbRR BbRr bbRR bbRr
How many of the bR
offspring would have a
white, rough coat? br BbRr Bbrr bbRr bbrr
How many of the
offspring would have a Phenotypic Ratio
white, smooth coat? 9:3:3:1
 Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
The Law of Dominance states that when purebred parents of contrasting
characteristics are crossbred, all offsprings show only one of the characteristics----the
dominant one over the recessive one.

The Law of Segregation states that the two genes of a pair separate or segregate
during gamete formation.

The Law of Independent Assortment states that the expression of one particular
trait does not affect the expression of another trait. Ex: The color does not affect the
shape.
 BIOLOGY

Sex – Linked Traits &

Central Dogma of
Biomolecular Genetics

By : Ruther Francis A.
Tablate
 Sex-linked Traits

is the phenotypic expression of an allele related to the

allosome (sex chromosome) of the individual.

• Color Blindness
• Balding Pattern
• Haemophilia
• Kinky Hair syndrome
Pedigree
Central Dogma of Biomolecular Genetics

• The ‘Central Dogma’ is the process by which the

instructions in DNA are converted into a functional
product. It was first proposed in 1958 by Francis Crick,
discoverer of the structure of DNA.
• The central dogma suggests that DNA contains the
information needed to make all of our proteins, and that
RNA is a messenger that carries this information to the
ribosomes.
• The ribosomes serve as factories in the cell where the
information is ‘translated’ from a code into the
functional product.
Central Dogma of Biomolecular Genetics

• The process by which the DNA instructions are

converted into the functional product is called gene
expression.
• Gene expression has two key stages – transcription
and translation.
• In transcription, the information in the DNA of every
cell is converted into small, portable RNA messages.
• During translation, these messages travel from where
the DNA is in the cell nucleus to the ribosomes where
they are ‘read’ to make specific proteins.
STRUCTURE OF DNA
REPLICATION
TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSLATION
NUCLEOTIDE TABLE
21 AMINO ACIDS
Central Dogma of Biomolecular Genetics

The central dogma states that the pattern of

information that occurs most frequently in our
cells is:

• From existing DNA to make new DNA (DNA

replication)
• From DNA to make new RNA (transcription)
• From RNA to make new proteins (translation).
PARTS OF A BONE
 FEEDBACK
MECHANISMS
 Every system in our bodies
knows when to do or stop
doing their functions based on
signals from the nervous and
endocrine systems. These
signals are coordinated to
ensure proper functioning of
the body.
 Feedback
is (generally)
information about
actions.
Feedback mechanisms maintain a
living system's internal conditions
within certain limits and mediate
behaviors, allowing it to remain
alive and functional even as
external conditions change within
some range.
 Feedback mechanisms can
encourage (through positive
feedback) or discourage
(negative feedback) what is
going on inside the living
system.
 FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

• Negative feedback is
when the response
diminishes the original
stimulus.
 FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

• Positive feedback is when

the response enhances the
original stimulus.
 FEEDBACK LOOPS

• Feedback mechanisms have

certain essential components:

• Stimulus
• Receptor
• Relay
 FEEDBACK LOOPS

• Stimulus: The change from ideal or

resting conditions.
• Receptor: The cells or tissue which
detects the change due to the stimulus.
• Relay: The transmission of the message,
via nerves or hormones or both, to the
effector.
Negative Feedback
 Negative Feedback Loop

• Negative feed back loop consists of:

• Receptor - structures that monitor a
controlled condition and detect changes

• Control center - determines next action

• Effector
– receives directions from the control center
– produces a response that restores the controlled
condition
 Negative Feedback
• Negative feedback restores systems to their original
level
• The possession of separate mechanisms involving
negative feedback controls departures in different
directions from the original state, giving a greater
degree of control.
Example of Negative Feedback
 Examples of Negative Feedback
• Blood glucose concentrations rise
after a sugary meal
(the stimulus),

• the hormone insulin is released and

it speeds up the transport of glucose
out of the blood and into selected
tissues
(the response),

• so blood glucose concentrations

decrease
(thus decreasing the original stimulus).
 Examples of Negative Feedback
• Exercise creates metabolic heat
which raises the body
temperature (the stimulus),
• cooling mechanisms such as
vasodilatation (flushed skin) and
sweating begin(the response),
• body temperature falls (thus
decreasing the original
stimulus).
Positive Feedback
 Examples of Positive Feedback
• A baby begins to suckle her
mother's nipple and a few drops of
milk are released (the stimulus).
• This encourages the baby and
releases a hormone in the mother
which further stimulates the
release of milk (the response).
• The hungry baby continues to
suckle, stimulating more milk
release until she stops.
 Examples of Positive Feedback
• A ripening apple releases the
volatile plant hormone ethylene
(the stimulus).
• Ethylene accelerates the ripening
of unripe fruit in its vicinity so
nearby fruit also ripens, releasing
more ethylene (the response).
• All the fruit quickly becomes ripe
together.
Feedback and regulation are self related. The
negative feedback helps to maintain stability
in a system in spite of external changes. It is
related to homeostasis. Positive feedback
amplifies possibilities of divergences
(evolution, change of goals); it is the
condition to change, evolution, growth; it
gives the system the ability to access new
points of equilibrium
 FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

Refers to responses made after

change has been detected.
HOMEOSTASIS