CHAPTER 11: METAL ALLOYS

APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and how are they used?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques?
• How do properties vary throughout a piece of material
that has been quenched, for example?
• How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?

Chapter 11- 1
 TAXONOMY OF METALS
Metal Alloys

Adapted from
Ferrous Nonferrous
Fig. 11.1,
Callister 6e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4wt%C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt%C

T(°C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite

cementite
1400 L
+L Adapted from Fig. 9.21,Callister 6e. (Fig.
1200  1148°C L+Fe 3 C 9.21 adapted from Binary Alloy Phase
austenite Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
+Fe 3 C 1990.)
+

800 727°C Fe 3 C


ferrite Eutectoid: cementite

600 0.77 +Fe 3 C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
C o , wt% C Chapter 11- 2
 STEELS
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C

heat austentitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 43 40 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 6e.
Chapter 11- 3
 NONFERROUS ALLOYS
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass : Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm 3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear)
Cu-Be :
NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
-very low : 1.7g/cm 3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missles
• Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm 3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 6e.
Chapter 11- 4
 REFINEMENT OF STEEL FROM ORE
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O 2 CO 2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO 2 +C2CO
and iron ore 3CO+ Fe 2 O 3 2Fe +3CO 2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO 3 CaO+CO 2
CaO + SiO 2 +Al2 O 3 slag

Chapter 11- 5
 METAL FABRICATION METHODS-I

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Forging • Rolling
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails)
force
die roll
Ad
Ao blank Ad often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.7,
• Drawing • Extrusion Callister 6e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Chapter 11- 6
 FORMING TEMPERATURE
• Hot working • Cold working
--recrystallization --more energy to deform
--less energy to deform --oxidation: good finish
--oxidation: poor finish --higher strength
--lower strength
• Cold worked microstructures
--generally are very anisotropic!
--Forged --Swaged --Fracture resistant!

(a) (b) (c)

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.),
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (a) Fig. 10.5, p. 410 (micrograph courtesy of G. Vander Voort, Car Tech Corp.); (b) Fig.
10.6(b), p. 411 (Orig. source: J.F. Peck and D.A. Thomas,
Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME, 1961, p. 1240); (c) Fig. 10.10, p. 415 (Orig. source: A.J. McEvily, Jr.
and R.H. Bush, Trans. ASM 55, 1962, p. 654.) Chapter 11- 7
METAL FABRICATION METHODS-II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting • Die Casting
(large parts, e.g., (high volume, low T alloys)
auto engine blocks)

Sand Sand

molten metal
• Continuous Casting
• Investment Casting (simple slab shapes)
(low volume, complex shapes
molten
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster solidified
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
Chapter 11- 8
METAL FABRICATION METHODS-III

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Powder Processing • Welding
(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 6e.
densify (Fig. 11.8 from Iron
Castings Handbook,
• Heat affected zone: C.F. Walton and T.J.
point contact densification Opar (Ed.), 1981.)
at low T by diffusion at
(region in which the
higher T microstructure has been
changed).
Chapter 11- 9
 THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.

• Stress Relief : Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):

stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below T E & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25h.
• Full Anneal (steels):
Types of Make soft steels for
Annealing good forming by heating
to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal :
Negate effect of
cold working by • Normalize (steels):
(recovery/ Deform steel with large
recrystallization) grains, then normalize
to make grains small.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 6e.

Chapter 11- 10
THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS - 2

Chapter 11-
 HARDENABILITY--STEELS
• Ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.
1”
Adapted from Fig. 11.10,
flat ground Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.10
specimen adapted from A.G. Guy,
(heated to  4” Essentials of Materials
Science, McGraw-Hill Book
phase field) Company, New York, 1978.)

24°C water

• Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Adapted from Fig. 11.11,

Callister 6e.

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11- 11
WHY HARDNESS CHANGES W/POSITION
• The cooling rate varies with position.
60

Hardness, HRC 40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(°C) 0%
600 P 100 %
A Adapted from Fig. 11.12, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 11.12 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas
4 00 of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
Transformation Diagrams, American Society
M(start) for Metals, 1977, p. 376.)
2 00
A M
M(finish) Pe ine nsi
0 ar P te
F
M
M ensi

lit ea +
ar

e rl P e
ar te
t
te

ite ar

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
lit
e

Chapter 11- 12
 HARDENABILITY VS ALLOY CONTENT
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (°C/s)
• Jominy end quench
60
results, C = 0.4wt%C 100

Hardness, HRC
4340 80 %M
50
40 4140
8640
Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister 6e.

10
(Fig. 11.13 adapted from figure furnished

40
5140
courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.) 20
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

• "Alloy Steels" 8 00
(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(°C) TE
6 00 shift from
--contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B A to B due
(0.2 to 2wt%) 4 00 to alloying
--these elements shift
the "nose". M(start)
200
--martensite is easier M(90%)
to form. 0 -1
10 10 10 3 10 5 Time (s)
Chapter 11- 13
QUENCHING MEDIUM & GEOMETRY
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air small small
oil moderate moderate
water large large
• Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center small small
surface large large

Chapter 11- 14
 PREDICTING HARDNESS PROFILES
• Ex: Round bar, 1040 steel, water quenched, 2" diam.
R R/2 center R = 54HRC
4
Bar
R/2 = 30HRC
Diameter (in)
center = 27HRC
2

0 effective distance
0 0.5 1 from quenched end (in)
Hardness, HRC 60

40
1040
20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 effective distance
HRC 6 0 from quenched end (in)

Hardness
40 profile

20 Adapted from Fig. 11.18, Callister 6e.

2 in.
Chapter 11- 15
 PRECIPITATION HARDENING
• Particles impede dislocations.
7 00
• Ex: Al-Cu system T(°C) L CuAl 2
• Procedure: 6 00
--Pt A: solution heat treat
 +L +L
A
(get  solid solution) 5 00 
--Pt B: quench to room temp. C 
4 00
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small  crystals within 300
0 10 20 30 40 50
 crystals. (Al) B wt%Cu
composition range
• Other precipitation needed for precipitation hardening
systems: Adapted from Fig. 11.22, Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.22 adapted from J.L.
• Cu-Be Temp. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)
Pt A (sol’n heat treat)
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al
Pt C (precipitate )

Adapted from Fig. 11.20,

Callister 6e. Time
Pt B
Chapter 11- 16
 PRECIPITATE EFFECT ON TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peaks with • %EL reaches minimum
precipitation time. with precipitation time.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
itat all
“ag es
ed”
pre ny sm
on
sol il.
uti

era tate e
“ov cipi larg
sol -equ

cip

30
ma

ged s
tensile strength (MPa)

non

pre wer
id

”
5 00

%EL (2in sample)

20
fe

4 00
149 °C
10
3 00 204°C 204°C 149 °C

200 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time (h) precipitation heat treat time (h)
Adapted from Fig. 11.25 (a) and (b), Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.25 adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and
Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society forChapter 11- 17
Metals, 1979. p. 41.)
SIMULATION: DISLOCATION MOTION
PEAK AGED MATERIAL
• Peak-aged
--avg. particle size = 64b
--closer spaced particles
efficiently stop dislocations.

Simulation courtesy
of Volker Mohles,
Institut für Materialphysik der
Universitåt, Münster, Germany
(http://www.
uni-munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with permission.

Chapter 11- 18
SIMULATION: DISLOCATION MOTION
OVERAGED MATERIAL
• Over-aged
--avg. particle size = 361b
--more widely spaced
particles not as effective.

Simulation courtesy
of Volker Mohles,
Institut für Materialphysik der
Universitåt, Münster, Germany
(http://www.
uni-munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with permission.

Chapter 11- 19
 SUMMARY
• Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding
--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
• Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
• Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
• Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--effective means to increase strength in
Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.

Chapter 11- 20
 Concept Check 11.1
Concept Check 11.1
Briefly explain why ferritic and austenitic stainless steels are not heat
treatable. Hint: you may want to consult the first portion of Section 11.3.

Concept Check 11.2

It is possible to produce cast irons that consist of a martensite matrix in
which graphite is embedded in either flake, nodule, or rosette form.
Briefly describe the treatment necessary to produce each of these three
microstructures.
Concept Check 11.3
What is the main difference between brass and bronze?
Concept Check 11.4
Explain why, under some circumstances, it is not advisable to weld a
structure that is fabricated with a 3003 aluminum alloy. Hint: you may
want to consult Section 7.12. Chapter 11-
Concept Check 11.5
On the basis of melting temperature, oxidation resistance, yield strength,
and degree of brittleness, discuss whether it would be advisable to hot
work or to cold work (a) aluminum alloys, and (b) magnesium alloys.
Hint: you may want to consult Sections 7.10 and 7.12.

Concept Check 11.6

(a) Cite two advantages of powder metallurgy over casting. (b) Cite two
disadvantages.

Concept Check 11.7

What are the principal differences between welding, brazing, and
soldering? You may need to consult another reference.
Concept Check 11.8
Name the three factors that influence the degree to which martensite is
formed throughout the cross section of a steel specimen. For each, tell
how the extent of martensite formation may be increased.
Chapter 11-
 Concept Check 11.9
Concept Check 11.9
Is it possible to produce a precipitation hardened 2014 aluminum alloy
having a minimum yield strength of 350 MPa (50,000 psi) and a ductility
of at least 18%EL? If so, specify the precipitation heat treatment. If it is
not possible then explain why.

Chapter 11-