Minggu 3

The Project Manager

Copyright 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Learning Objectives

3-01 Understand the difference between project

manager and other manager.
3-02 Understand the responsibility of project manager.
3-03 Understand the special demand on project
manager
3-04 Characteristics required from project manager
3-05 Understand why project manager must take into
account the cultures

2
The Project Manager
• The project manager can be chosen and installed as soon as the project is
selected for funding: This simplifies several start up activities
• The project manager can be chosen later: This makes things difficult
• Senior management briefs the project manager
• Early tasks of Project manager;
• begins with a budget and schedule,
• to help select people to serve on the project team,
• to get to know the client (either internal or external),
• to make sure that the proper facilities are available,
• to ensure that any supplies required early in the project life are available when needed,
• and to take care of the routine details necessary to get the project moving.
• As people are added these tasks are refined
• 2 conditions that are important for PM:
• Support from senior management
• PM and team members must focus on the project objectives

3-3
Functional Management
• Department heads are usually functional specialists,
analytically oriented
• They have the required technical skills to evaluate all
members of their organization
• Functional managers:
• Decide who performs each task
• Decide how the task is performed
• Exercise a great deal of control over every aspect of the
work that gets performed within their area

3-4
Project Management (Slide 1 of 2)

3-5
Project Management (Slide 2 of 2)
• Project managers are usually generalists, overseeing
many functions
• It would be very unusual for a project manager to
have all the technical skills that are used on their
projects
• Project managers:
• Rarely decide who performs each task
• Lack the technical skills to evaluate much of the work
performed on a particular project
• Exercise control very little over most aspects of the work
that gets performed on the project

3-6
Comparing Functional & Project Managers
Functional Managers
need technical skills
should be more skilled at
analysis
use the analytic approach
responsible for a small area
act as managers
responsible for a small area
act as direct, technical
supervisors
Project Managers
need negotiation skills
should be more skilled at
synthesis
use systems approach
responsible for the big
picture
act as facilitators
responsible for the big
picture
act as facilitators and
generalists
3-7
Three Major Questions Facing Project
Managers
• PM Tasks:
• What needs to be done?
• When must it be done?
• How are the resources required to do the job to be
obtained?
• But FM may make some of the fundamental and critical
decisions: people, technology, deployment of resources
• There may be some occasion that SM does what is
called “micro-management”
• Relationship among PM, FM, Team member, SM is
collegial where cooperation is the norm

3-8
Project Manager Responsibilities

• The parent organization

• The project and the client
• The project team

3-9
 The Parent Organization
• Proper usage of resources
• Timely and accurate reports
• Covered in detail later
• Keep project sponsor informed
• Conservation of resources
• Careful, competent management of the project
• Protect the firm from high risk
• Inform the SM if the viability of the project has become
doubtful
• Inform SM about the future of the project

Above all, the PM must never allow senior management to be

surprised!
3-10
The Project and the Client
• Preserve the integrity of the project
• This may be difficult with all sides wanting changes
• Resolve conflict among interested parties
• The PM is in the middle of this turmoil:
• Must deal with the engineering department when it resists a change
advised by marketing, requested by client
• Contract administration says that the client has no right to request
changes without the submission of a formal Request for Change order
• Manufacturing says that the argument is irrelevant because
marketing’s suggestion cannot be incorporated into the project
without a complete redesign.
• Keep the client informed of major changes
• Ensure performance, budgets, and deadlines are met

3-11
The Project Team
• Very few people will work for the project manager
• The “team” will disband at the end of the project
• The project manager must look out for everyone’s
future
• This is in the best interest of the project, otherwise as the
project winds down, everyone will be looking after
themselves
• Fairness, consistency, respect, honesty

3-12
Project Management Career Paths
• Might work on several projects simultaneously
• Small short-term projects train new project managers
• Start on small projects and work up to large projects
• The path could be tooling manager for small Project U, project
engineer for larger Project V, manufacturing manager for large
Project W, deputy PM for large Project X, PM for small Project Y,
and PM for large Project Z.
• Experience as a project manager is often seen as a desirable step
on the corporate ladder
• Firms are now looking for PMs who have “specific experience and
understand the nuts and bolts” of the technology or project being
implemented

3-13
Sample Career Path (AT&T)
• Trainee:
• a six-month position to learn about project management
• Cost Analysis/Schedule Engineer:
• a 6–18 month team position reporting to a project manager
• Site Manager:
• a 6–12 month position responsible for a large site and reporting to a program
manager
• Small Project Manager:
• sole responsibility for a $1M to $3M revenue project
• Project Manager:
• responsible for $3M to $25M projects
• Program Manager:
• responsible for multiyear projects and programs over $25M

3-14
Special Demands on the Project Manager
• Acquiring adequate resources
• Acquiring and motivating personnel
• Dealing with obstacles
• Making project goal trade-offs
• Maintaining a balanced outlook
• Breadth of communication
• Negotiation
Never let the boss be surprised.
Projects can rapidly get into deep trouble if team members hide their failures,
or even a significant risk of failure, from the PM. Of course, the PM must be
aware that “shooting the messenger who brings bad news” will immediately
stop the flow of any negative information.

3-15
Acquiring Adequate Resources
• Project budgets are usually inadequate
• Under budget projects:
• Project proposer’s optimism
• Purposeful underestimates
• Uncertainty of project environment
• PM Response: Scramble, elicit aid, work late, wheedle, threaten, do
whatever necessary
• Resource trade-offs must be considered
• Crises occur that require special resources
• Phenomenon of overestimate by worker and underestimate by
upper management
• Availability of resources is seen as a “win-lose” proposition

3-16
Acquiring and Motivating Personnel (slide 1 of 2)
• Most project workers are borrowed from functional
managers
• The project manager negotiates for the desired worker but
• the project manager wants the best qualified individual
• the functional manager decides who to assign
• The functional manager also decides:
• the skill level to assign
• the pay and promotion of the worker
• Worker will most likely return to the functional manager
once the project is finished

3-17
Acquiring and Motivating Personnel (Slide 2 of 2)
• Once workers are assigned to a project, the project
manager must motivate them
• PM cannot promise much beyond the challenge of the
work itself.
• The project manager has little or no control over pay and
promotion
• Concerns by Functional Manager:
• PM chooses FM’s best workers for project
• Project more glamorous than steady functional duties
• Concerns by Acquired Team Member:
• FM controls evaluation, salary & promotion

3-18
Most Important Characteristics for Team Members
• High-quality technical skills: Team members should be able to solve
most of the technical problems of a project without recourse to outside
assistance.
• Political, and general, sensitivity
• Strong problem orientation: the chances for successful completion
of a multidisciplinary project are greatly increased if project team members
are problem-oriented rather than discipline-oriented
• Strong goal orientation: Projects do not provide a comfortable work
environment for individuals whose focus is on activity rather than on results.
• High self-esteem: Individuals on the team should have sufficiently high
levels of self-esteem that they are not threatened by acknowledgment of
their own errors or by pointing out possible problems caused by the work of
others.

3-19
Tuckman Ladder
• Team work is very important in project and for PM

3-20
Dealing with Obstacles (Slide 1 of 3)
• Quote: “What I need is a list of specific unknown problems that
we will encounter.”
• Every project is unique
• The project manager should be ready to face a series of crises
• The better the planning the fewer the crises, but no amount of
planning can overcome what can and do occur in the project’s
environment
• A big problem is “scope creep”
• Good project managers are fire preventers hopefully, but also fire
fighters
• At the inception of the project, the “fires” tend to be associated with
resources.

3-21
Dealing with Obstacles (Slide 2 of 3)
• Early problems are associated with resources
• Later problems are associated with:
• Last-minute schedule and technical changes: “the best you can”
• The happenings to a team when the project is completed: “open
communication”
• Firefighting, to be optimally effective, should be organized
so that fires are detected and recognized as early as
possible.
• What clearly differentiates successful PMs from
counterparts is their problem-finding ability.
• Allows the fires to be assigned to project team members who
specialize in dealing with specific types of fires.

3-22
 Dealing with Obstacles (Slide 3 of 3)
• Some projects are highly complex, and this poses obstacles all by
itself (Burba)
• Multiple stakeholders and the number of project team members
• Ambiguity of project features, resources or phases, so that various aspects of the
project depend on multiplicity of uncontrollable elements
• Approaches for handling complex projects
• Communicating effectively with all stakeholder groups and always keeping an open
line to external stakeholders and internal sponsors who actively support the
project
• Be sure to learn as much about the client as possible and especially the problems
and solutions in dealing with them in the past.
• Leadership is a critical skill for handling complex projects.
• This means always being on the lookout for even weak signals of trouble and being ready to
respond.
• The ability to revise plans and rectify conflicting interests is crucial.

3-23
Making Project Goal Trade-Offs (1 of 2)
• Project managers must make trade-offs between the project goals of: Cost,
Time, Scope, Risk and Ancillary goals
• The PM must also make trade-offs between project progress and process—
that is, between the technical and managerial functions.
• Two sets of trade off:
• The need to preserve some balance between the project time, cost and
scope goals
• Concerns sacrificing smoothness of running the project team for technical
progress
• Near the end of the project it may be necessary to ask various team
member to prepare final report (which is not related to the team
member technical skills and maybe they are not well trained or don’t
like this)
• Multiple projects
• Project goals and organizational goals

3-24
Making Project Goal Trade-Offs (2 of 2)

• PM should make these trade-offs in a way that best supports

the organization’s mission and strategy.
• Some unethical actions for a very enthusiastic PM:
(1) overstating the benefits of a project,
(2) understating the probable costs of project completion,
(3) ignoring technical difficulties in achieving the required level of
performance, and
(4) making trade-off decisions that are clearly biased in favor of the
project but antithetical to the goals of the parent organization.
• Similarly, this enthusiasm can lead the PM to take risks not
justified by the likely outcomes.
• Finally, trade-off between project, firm, their career

3-25
Relative Importance of Project Objectives
• Conventional wisdom had it that the precise nature of the
trade-offs varied depending on the stage of the project life
cycle.

3-26
Maintaining a Balanced Outlook
• Hard to tell where a project is headed
• Outlook can change over the life of a project
• Technical problems cause waves of pessimism and optimism
• Mood swings can hurt performance
• Performance will be the strongest when project team members
are “turned on,”
• But not so much that they blandly assume that “everything will
turn out all right in the end,”
• Despair is even worse because the project is permeated with an
attitude that says, “Why try when we are destined to fail?”
• Maintaining a positive outlook is a delicate job

3-27
Breadth of Communication
• Most of a project manager’s time is spent communicating
• Considerable time must be spent selling, reselling, and explaining the project to many
parties involved in the project
• Interested parties include:
• Top management
• Functional departments
• Clients
• Members of the project team
• In order to properly communicate, the PM must deal with or
understand:
• Why the project exists, what is the project intent: Clear definition of how success or
failure is to be determined
• That some projects fail
• That support of the top management is needed
• A strong information network is needed
• They must be flexible in many ways, with as many people, and about as many
activities as possible

3-28
Negotiations
• Acquiring adequate resources
• Motivating personnel
• Dealing with obstacles
• Making project goal trade-offs
• Handing failure
• Maintaining communication

The PM must be a highly skilled negotiator. There is almost

no aspect of the PM’s job that does not depend directly on
this skill

3-29
Most Popular Attributes, Skills, and Qualities When Selecting
PMs

3-30
Attributes of Effective Project
Managers
• Credibility
• Sensitivity
• Leadership, ethics, and management style
• Ability to handle stress

• They must also have the drive to complete the

task!

3-31
Credibility
• Technical credibility
• Perceived by key stakeholders as possessing sufficient technical
knowledge to direct the project
• Conversational competence
• Reasonable understanding of the base technology, ability to explain
project technology to stakeholders, accurate interpretation of client
needs to project team)
• Administrative credibility
• Keeping the project on schedule and within costs
• Making sure reports are accurate and timely
• Ensuring project team has material, equipment, and labor when
needed.
• Represent the interests of all stakeholders (team, management,
functional departments, community, and client) to one another .

3-32
Sensitivity (1 of 2)
• Political sensitivity
• PM needs to sense interpersonal conflict on the project
team or between team members and outsiders
• Successful PMs are not conflict avoiders.
• Quite the opposite, they sense conflict early, then confront
and deal with it before the conflict escalates into
interdepartmental and intradepartmental warfare.
• Interpersonal sensitivity
• The PM must keep project team members “cool.”
• As with any group of humans, rivalries, jealousies,
friendships, and hostilities are sure to exist.
• The PM must persuade people to cooperate irrespective of
personal feelings, to set aside personal likes and dislikes, and
to focus on achieving project goals.

3-33
Sensitivity (2 of 2)
• Technical sensitivity
• The PM needs a sensitive set of technical sensors.
• It is common, unfortunately, for otherwise competent and
honest team members to try to hide their failures.
• Individuals who cannot work under stress would be well
advised to avoid project organizations: failure is
particularly threatening.
• Team members with task orientation may not be able to
tolerate their own failures (though they are rarely as
intolerant of failure in others) and may hide failure rather
than admit to it.
• The PM must be able to sense when things are being
“swept under the rug” and are not progressing properly.

3-34
Leadership, Ethics, and Management Style

• Leadership
• …..“a process of social influence, which maximizes the efforts
of others, towards the achievement of a goal” (Kruse, 2013)
• Strong sense of ethics
• A management style that fits the project

3-35
Leadership Research
• Conducted by PMI
• Six skills identified for a project manager to become a leader:
• 29% - communication
• 26% - people
• 16% - strategic
• 12% - requirements gathering
• 12% - leadership
• 5% - time management
• Leadership theory: the trait school, the behavioral school,
and the contingency school, to mention only the first three of
several.
• Recently, the competency school has combined parts of all
earlier “schools” by defining various leadership qualities with
three major areas of competence: intellectual (IQ),
managerial (MQ), and emotional (EQ).

3-36
Leadership Competencies

3-37
Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
• Fundamentally, emotional intelligence governs a
person’s ability to effectively deal with and in fact
harness their emotions to achieve positive outcomes.
• EQ is the single best predictor of job performance.
• EQ is a critical factor in explaining differences
between the best leaders and mediocre leaders and
that EQ accounted for approximately 90 percent of the
success of leaders (Goleman, 1998)
• According to Swanson (2012), EQ is comprised of four
foundational skills: self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness, and relationship management.

Copyright ©2017 John Wiley & Son, Inc. 38

Common Ethical Missteps in Business
Beyond EQ, another aspect of leadership that is an important trait in
a PM is a strong sense of ethics:
•“wired” bids and contracts
•“buy-in”
•kickbacks
•“covering” for team members
•taking “shortcuts”
•using marginal materials
•compromising on safety
•violating standards
•consultant loyalties

3-39
Ability to Handle Stress (1 of 3)
• The PM is surrounded by conflict, often caught in an
irrational management structure, and trapped in a
high-stress occupation.
• Signs of excessive stress in workplace (Kent, 2008)
• inability to switch-off work issues
• disturbed sleep
• lack of pleasure in non-work related leisure activities
• difficulty concentrating or making decisions
• tendency to anger quickly
• lack of energy

3-40
Ability to Handle Stress (2 of 3)
Ways to handle stress (Kent, 2008):
•Keep a journal, taking time to reflect on the events of the day.
•Prioritize all tasks facing you, eliminating tasks that do not really need to be done,
transferring or delegating what you can, delaying low priority items, and minimizing
the scope of any subtask that is not crucial to your overall task (the online Appendix
to this chapter provides a primer on effective time management).
•Give yourself time to unwind from high-stress meetings, perhaps by taking a short
walk or doing 15 minutes of exercise or meditation. Avoid meditating on the high-
stress meeting.
•Engage in after-work physical activities that take your mind off the tasks.
•Improve your physical surroundings so they are pleasant, enjoyable, and
comfortable, helping you to relax.
•Become aware of the control you do or do not have over events. One of the great
laws of living is “Do not develop anxiety about things over which you have no
control!”

3-41
Ability to Handle Stress (3 of 3)
Four major causes of stress often associated with the
management of projects:
•No consistent procedures
•Too much to do
•High need to achieve: the demands made on an individual are
greater than the person’s ability to cope with them, particularly
when the person has a high need for achievement.
•Organizations in change: worry about one’s future is a
common condition in modern organizations

3-42
Problems of Cultural Differences
• It is not the geographical or organizational differences that
matter, it is the differences in cultures.
• Moreover, it is not merely the differences in culture that
matter, it is also differences in the environments within
which projects are conducted
• Project managers must adapt to the social and cultural
environment in which they are working
• This is especially true when the project is in another country
• Problems can arise in international projects, when a
culture’s opinion of some group is different from that of the
firm

3-43
Aspects of Culture
• “Culture” refers to the entire way of life for a group of people.
• Technology: includes such things as the tools used by people, the
material things they produce and use, the way they prepare food, their
skills, and their attitudes toward work. It embraces all aspects of their
material lives.
• Institutions: the organization of the government, the nature of the
family, the way in which religion is organized, the division of labor, the
kind of economic system adopted, the system of education, and the way
in which voluntary associations are formed and maintained.
• Language: is always unique because it is developed in ways that meet the
expressed needs of the culture
• Art: Aesthetic values dictate what is found beautiful and satisfying. If a
society can be said to have “style,” it is from the culture’s aesthetic values
that style has its source.

3-44
Culture and the Project
A nation’s culture affects projects in many ways:
•Time
• US & western countries “time is money”
• Latin America: 30 minutes late is common
• Japan: Lost of face
•Staffing projects
• Latin America: Compadre
•Knowledge of people
• The US is, by far, the most litigious society on this planet, other countries
more recourse to rust and negotiation as a means of resolving conflict.
• Certain types of collaboration between competitors have grown rapidly
• U.S.: “get down to business,” while many foreign cultures “getting to know
you” before doing business
• For at least three-quarters of the world’s population, relationship comes
above all else: above time, above budget, and above specification

3-45
Culture and the Project

3-46
Corporate Culture
• Microcultures
• Vary within industries and firms
• Impacted by diversity
• Interindustry
• Interfirm
• Intrafirm
• PM is dependent on commitments made by people, both inside and
outside the parent organization, who owe little allegiance to the
project, have little cause for loyalty to the PM, and over whom the PM
has little or no de jure authority.
• Hence, the PM must know whose promises can be relied upon and whose
cannot.
• With product development teams, the skill with which they handled two-way
communication and cultural differences was critical to success

3-47
Impact of Institutional Environments

• Socioeconomic Environment
• Legal Environment
• Business Cycle Environment
• Technological Environment
Socioeconomic Environment
• Bureaucracy:
marked increase outside U.S.A.
• The interest of the government: ensuring the Good of the
Local Economy: no exploitation, reinvestment, local safety
rules, employment preference, local traditions honored
• Discrimination:
female PM or “hostile” ethnicity PM may increase the risk
of project failure (difficult to use Armenian PM in Turkey)
• Must deal with the local government
• Local government is interested in its citizens
• Must honor local customs
Legal Environment
• Different countries/regions have different legal
structures
• The project must conform to those laws
• Projects may also have to conform to home
country’s laws
• Ownership of the project
• Patents
• Copyrights
• Trademarks
• Trade secrets
Legal Environment
Domestic Foreign
(US)
Litigation High Low
Negotiation Moderate High
Trust Important Essential
Collaboration Catching on The norm
Proprietary Legally Transferred or
technology protected protected by PM
Business Cycle Environment
• The business environment can be very different in
various countries
• The general economic environment can also be
different
• Cost of living
• Unemployment
• Average income
• Work day
• Cycles between prosperity and recession
• Cycle shifted in timing and magnitude among
different nations
• During recession, nations erect protective trade
barriers
Technological Environment
• Local technology is a function of relative cost
(supply) of the factors of production
• Local technology is modified by local traditions,
policy and law
• Local technology needs to be integrated into overall
project technology
• The US is very technologically advanced
• Some other countries are less advanced
• This affects the technology available for the project
• It affects the local worker’s ability to understand and
use technology
Multicultural Communication Problems
• PM does not speak local language  Learn it!
• Illiterate team members  no memos
• Local supervisors shun “hands-on” experience  PM
to demonstrate
• High regard for teachers  local team members will
not correct PM mistakes
• Team members expect to be asked  PM not
voluntarily informed of project status
PM Behavior in Multicultural
Environment
• Collegiality (formality of communications)
• Appropriate way of criticism
• Project time horizon (short vs. long term)
• Work ethic
• Project risk taking
• Personal risk taking (kidnapping, etc)
• Provide for expatriate needs
Language & Communication
• The importance of language cannot be overstated
• Communication cannot be separated from the communicator
• Managerial and personal behaviors of the PM must be considered
in the communication process
• Structure and style of communications
• Managerial and personal behavior
• Structure and Style of Communications:
• In the United States, delegation is a preferred managerial style
• In cultures where authority is highly centralized, it becomes the
project manager’s responsibility to seek out information
• The manager of an international project cannot count on being
voluntarily informed of problems and potential problems by his or
her subordinates
Managerial Behavior
• Managerial and Personal Behavior
• In a society with highly structured social classes, it is difficult to
practice participative management
• There is an assumption that the more educated, higher-class
manager’s authority will be denigrated by using a participative
style
• The more structured a country’s social system, the less direct
managerial communication tends to be
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Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Son, Inc. 58