Advanced Techniques

&
Industries
Mechanical Engineering Department
Final year, Production
Lecture #7 V1.0: Metallurgy of casting II
01/12/2013
Metallurgy of casting
1. Introduction to Metal Castings
2. The Casting Process
3. Cast Materials
4. Casting Quality
5. Casting Design Guidelines
6. Advanced techniques for modern industries
Metallurgy of casting
This lecture content
3. Cast Materials 4. Casting Quality
1. Introduction to Metal 1. Introduction to Casting Quality
2. Ferrous Alloys 2. Chemical Composition
3. Cast Iron 3. Mechanical Properties
4. Cast Steel 4. Casting Tolerancing
5. AISI Materials 5. Surface Finish
6. Materials Selection 6. Internal Soundness
a) Material Properties 7. Casting Defect
b) Weight a) Porosity
c) Weldability b) Inclusions
d) Machinability c) Shrinkage
e) Heat Treatability 8. Inspection Methods for Defect
f) Material Cost Detection
3.1. Introduction to Metals
• The choice of a metal alloy used is as critical to a successful casting as
the actual design itself.
• The part application and strength requirements will determine whether
a ferrous or nonferrous alloy is chosen.
• Every alloy will have a specific set of physical properties and the alloy
choice will depend on the application requirements.
• If a part will be used in a salt water environment, corrosion resistance
of the alloy will be important.
• If fatigue life is important, the mechanical properties of the material
will be of the highest concern.
3.2. Ferrous Alloys
•Cast
The family of ferrous alloys are
Iron
• composed primarily
The mechanical of iron (Fe)
properties of

g
ran
and carbon
these (C). are controlled
cast irons

g
ran

Iron
• The ferrous family
by chemical is also and
composition

l
broken intoextent
two materials, iron

Stee
to a lesser cooling rate.

t
Cas
• and
Caststeel.
iron can contain up to
3.5% of silicon (Si) and may
also contain trace elements of
manganese (Mn), sulfur (S),
and phosphorous (P).
Iron-carbon phase diagram
3.3. Cast Iron
Gray Iron (Carbon Content 2-4%)
•• Gray
Irons
Fe3C is iron
with
very isacharacterized
high and
hard percentage by aof
difficult toflake
pearlite
machine.
• graphite
will structure
be harder,
Replacing sharpexhibitin ahigher
corners matrix
on the ofcasting
wear ferrite
and pearlite.
resistance andThe chemistry
tensile strength.
with a suitable radius often eliminates of the iron is
modified
the whiteto obtain
iron theingrade
or chill of gray iron
the castings.
• desired.
size, shape, amount and distribution of
• Foundry processes are critical to the
the graphite flakes in gray iron helps
successful
determine formation
the mechanical of theproperties.
material
• microstructure.
Irons with a high percentage of ferrite in
• cooling too quickly, forms white iron,
the matrix will be soft and easily Microstructure shows a polished
removed. Gray
SEMwhich
shows thecontains carbon
graphite structure afterin
thethe
iron form
has beenof Iron Microstructure
Notemachined
that the threebut posses
dimensional a lower
interaction tensile
between the graphite sample with the dark lines being the
cementite
flakes (Fe
that the polished
strength. C, iron carbide).
microstructure
3 may not convey. graphite flakes within the iron matrix
3.3. Cast Iron
Gray Iron
Physical and mechanical properties of gray iron are characterized by:
1. Good compressive strength.
2. Good machinability.
3. Good vibration damping capacity.
4. Poor performance in a dynamic load application.
5. A lower modulus of elasticity than steel.
6. The ability to evenly disperse heat throughout its volume.
Gray Cast Iron Applications;
• Grey iron is used in applications that take advantage of its compressive strength and
vibration damping capacity.
• It can be readily found in engine blocks, pump housings and valve bodies.
3.3. Cast Iron
Ductile Iron (Carbon Content 2-4%)
• Ductile iron, also properties
The mechanical called nodular
of a iron or
ductile
spheroidal
iron are determined
graphite (SG)
by the
iron,
size
is and
characterized
shape of the graphite
by the presence
nodules along
of
graphite
with the incomposition
a sphericalofform
thewithin
matrixthe
iron
structure.
matrix.
• The addition of either magnesium (Mg)
or cerium (Ce) creates nucleation
points from which the graphite
nodules form.
• Irons containing these nodules are
Ductile iron microstructure
much stronger and have better Ductile iron SEM
ductility than a conventional gray iron.
3.3. Cast Iron
Ductile Iron
The physical and mechanical properties of ductile iron are
characterized by:
1. Good tensile and yield strength.
2. Greatly improved ductility over gray iron.
3. Improved fatigue strength over gray iron.
4. Good machinability
5. A lower modulus of elasticity than steel
3.3. Cast Iron
Ductile Iron
•Ductile
Thereiron
areisvarious
used ingrades
a variety
of of
applications.
ductile iron available. The table
• Some
displays
of some
the more
of the
common
more
common
uses being,grades
ductile
used.
iron pipe,
• automotive
The chart displays
and agricultural
the tensile
strength vs.parts.
equipment material elongation
• It’s
values
specifically
for theseuseful
grades.
in
applications that require higher
strength than grey iron or
aluminum but may not require
the strength or toughness of a
steel.
3.3. Cast Iron
Austempered Ductile Iron ADI
•ADI heat
ADIADI istreatment consists
a heat treated
properties of;
DI material
•• improved
Holding
that hasthe material
higher
strength, in astrength
tensile 1500-
1750°F
• improved (815-955°C)
properties furnace for
thanproperties.
wear a standard DI.a
period
RegularofDItime
• machinability until aof
consists
decreases carbon
nodules
with of
saturated austenitic
carbon surrounded
increasing matrix is
by a ferrite
strength levels,
formed.
ADIpearlite matrix.
applications
• The material is then rapidly cooled
• automotive
ADI microstructure
industry is a DI one
to 450-750°F (232- 400°C) and
• agricultural
transformed into
equipment
soaked at this an acicular
temperature industry.
to form
• crankshafts,
ferrite (needle shaped)
bucket
the microstructure teethby
required.and
quenching
There are sixhigh
• sprockets. carbon
standard austenite
ASTM
in a molten
grades saltlisted
available bath.in Table.
3.3. Cast Iron
ADI microstructure
Image
ADI microstructure
details: Large 1
graphite
•nodules,
Nominalausferrite
composition:
(blue and wt%: 3.0-
brown),
3.6 C,and
1.8-3.0
retained
Si, 0.1-0.7
austenite
Mn,
(white).
0.02-0.07
The etchant
Mg, balcolors
Fe the
• Condition:
ausferrite yellow,
Heatbrown,
treated and blue,
while
(isothermal
the retained heataustenite
treatment) is not
•colored
Product
(it isform:
tintedCasting
slightly by the
• Metallographic
sensitive tint filter). Method:
The nodule Light
structure
microscope
is visible
(optical,
in colorpolarized
due to
thelight
use of
pluspolarized
sensitivelight
tint)and
• Etchant:
sensitive tint.Beraha CdS reagent
• Original magnification: 500×
3.4. Cast Steel
• There are many types of carbon
and alloy steels used for castings.
The choice of which will depend
greatly on the application.
• Cast steels can be broken into
five generic group which depend
on the carbon and alloy content.
3.4. Cast Steel
•TheCSmore
are
partscommon
often
areused
almostheat
when treat
the heat
always
impact
treatedproperties
processes are: or elongation of
after shakeout
• CI are insufficient
Anneal:
Exceptions wouldfor
provides the low
ainclude
soft
application.
strength
consumable structure with
wear castings.
•• CS
Themust
maximum also be specified
ductility
mechanical properties if the
that
• part is to be welded.
Normalize:
are achievableprovides a medium
are greatly
• CS alloys are formulated to exhibit
strength
dependent andonhardness
the alloywith
being
certain material properties.
• improved
heat ductility
treated.
CS alloying enhance mechanical
• Quench and
properties, Temper:
e.g. Provides
tensile strength,
the maximum
elongation strength levels
and improved
with good ductility
machinability and wear
and hardenability.
resistance.
3.5. AISI Materials
• There may notare
AISI materials be common
standard for
the
steelAISI cast material.
materials specify in
• It
wrought
is pertinent
plateto
andcommunicate
bar product.
• both
Due to the
itsmaterial
extensiveproperties
use, cast
equivalents
required andare
intended
always sought
after.
application for a steel casting to
• your
Whencasting
lookingmanufacturer.
for a cast
material from a global source, a
large number of the AISI
materials can be found in a
suitable cast form.
3.5. AISI Materials
Steel Tensile Strength vs.
Elongation
• One thing to note is the
difference in material properties
between the identical alloys
that have different heat
treatments.
• AISI 4140 is common to use as a
highly heat treatable steel alloy.
• The trend shown, diminishing
elongation with increasing
tensile strength, is common
across all steel materials.
 3.6. Materials Selection
• Tensile strength • Corrosion resistance
Materials selected • Steels and Al lend
• Yield strength • hardness
depends upon HT well to various HT Materials • Elongation
require; • CI HT to modify its property
materials properties
Materials from • Aluminum
Heat Weight
treatable concerns light to heavy; • Iron
• Steel
Materials
selection
Good to poor; • LCS, MCS Cost vs. weight • Iron
Machin- Materials
• Aluminum • Ductile Iron ability cost low to high; • Steel
• Gray Iron • Alloy steel • Aluminum
Weld-
ability Best to worst; • Aluminum
• LCS, MCS • Alloy steels
• LAS • Cast iron
3.6. Materials Selection Tensile Strength
a) Material Properties vs. Elongation
•• Cast material
Elongation:
Tensile the
Strength:contains
amount various
of
the maximum
elements,
stress which
permanent each one playing
deflection
a material ofcan a role in
a material
withstand
theitmechanical
prior
as istostressed
fracture.toproperties
The
failure.
tensileofstrength
This the
is
material.
of a material
expressed in awill
percentage
vary evenofwithin
the
• The composition
the composition
materials originalofwill
gage
thedefine the
length.
material.
• achievable
Yield Strength:
Hardness: range
the ofstress
measure
the the of
mechanical
at
the
which a
properties
material will
resistance oftransform
of aa material
cast material.
from
to deform.
elastic
• Four
This ismechanical
deformation
measured properties
to plastic
by methods are
deformation most
such as
commonly
Brinell,
and exhibit defined;
Rockwell and Vickers.
permanent deformation.
Hardness is typically proportional to
the yield and tensile strength of a
material.
3.6. Materials Selection
b) Weight
• The density of a material, or the weight of the part, play a role in the
material chosen.
• Aluminum is usually the material of choice from a weight standpoint.
• Although because of the differences in the yield strength of steel vs.
aluminum, it is possible in certain applications for the weight of a
steel design to compete with an aluminum design.
3.6. Materials Selection
c) Weldability
• Certain applications will require
that a cast part be welded.
• An alloy steel can be welded but
a different approach is taken
because some elements will
create a brittle weld.
• Carbon equivalency should be
AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2002 Carbon
calculated to determine the Equivalency Calculation
weldability of the alloy.
• Typically a material that has %C
>0.30% may require preheating
and post heat on the weld itself.
3.6. Materials Selection
d) Machinability
• When selecting a material the
machinability of the alloy may
need to be considered.
• Sometimes casting may need a
free machining steel, e.g.
12L14, in order to help with
tight tolerance features and/or
improved productivity.
• The table shows the effect of
alloying elements including
improve machinability.
3.6. Materials Selection
e) Heat Treatability
• The selection of a material that will need a heat treatment is
dependent on the hardness and heat treatment required.
• In the case of a low carbon steel such as a 1020, because of it’s low
alloy and carbon content, it does not lend itself well to induction
hardening but it is a good candidate for case hardening.
• 4140 on the other hand is a good candidate for induction hardening
or through hardening.
3.6. Materials Selection
f) Material Cost
• Choosing
The cost of between
materialsusing
will steel
alwaysor affect
ductilea iron
casting
in adesign.
casting design, the
• material
The use of properties
the lowest of cost
a steel may allow
material forapplication
for the a thinner section in areas
is essential for
and thus a lower
a financially cost part.
successful project.
•• When choosing
Materials a material
in order basedtoon
from highest cost itcost
lowest willper
be design dependent.
kilogram, it would
• Each
look like,
material
Aluminum,
may dictate
Steel,athen
different
Iron. casting process and that casting
• process,
AlthoughasAluminum
well as the material
is the properties,
highest will drive the
cost per kilogram, partbedesign.
it may
• As
justified,
a casting
because
is being
of developed
Aluminum’sand lowcost
density,
estimates
from are
a weight
beingsavings
potential. it’s good to keep in mind that a material change can drive
tabulated,
design changes that may increase or decrease costs
4.1. Introduction to Casting Quality
Some common
Castings are often
requirements
purchased to of specifications
a casting may originating
include evaluation
from of:
organizations such as;
1. Chemical Composition
•2.American Society
Mechanical for Testing Materials (ASTM),
Properties
•3.American Society
Dimensional of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
Tolerances
•4.Society of Roughness
Surface Automotiveand Engineers
Integrity(SAE),
•5.American
Internal Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), and
Soundness
•6.International
Nodule andOrganization
Flake shape andfor Standardization (ISO).
size (for gray and ductile irons)
• Purchasers of castings may require additional specifications for
specialized applications.
4.2. Chemical Composition
• If
Steel
an ASTM
castings
specification
are commonly is being
ordered
used,tothe
mechanical
composition property
may be fairly
specifications.
open, but the mechanical properties are controlled tightly.
• Just
Additional
as well,requirements
an ASTM specification
may include mayheat
require
or corrosion
chemicalresistance.
composition
• to
Thebechemical
verified composition
but not mention thematerial
of the mechanical properties.
is specified in order to
• It
produce
is better
a material
when usingthatexternal
fits the specifications,
application it willto verify
be used
that
in.the
• defined materialofspecifications
In the example a steel, if the will actually isfitnonstructural
application the application.
and not of
a critical nature, the composition of the material may not be
controlled as tightly as if it were an application that had a low factor
of safety and a very tightly controlled mechanical property
specification.
4.3. Mechanical Properties
It is common
Bend
FatigueProperties:
Properties practice to verify the inspected mechanical properties of a
•the
of acased
Fatigue material,
casttesting
materialconsistsi.e.
of stressing
are typically a materialas
not measured forinaweld
number of cycles and
qualification tests.
determining
•Tensile
Measuring thebend
the number of cycles
properties of needed
a to cause
material is failure. by taking a bar of given
performed
Properties:
• An S-N curvebending
dimensions, can be developed for theangle
it to a specified material to determined
around theradius
a pin of given endurance
and limit.
•monitoring
may include
• Fatigue testing
ultimate
for can
cracks
be on
used
tensile
thetosurface
strength,
qualifyof
yield strength, elongation and
the material
designs, processes and materials but rarely
reduction
for
Impactheat of area.
lot evaluation.
Properties
••Hardness
The
An material
impact propertytested is taken isfrom
or toughness a representative
determined by measuringsample, testofbar of
the amount
the same
energy
• Hardness is ametal
needed used
to fracture
measure to cast the parts.
a sample.
of the resistance of the material to indentation. This is
• measured
The CharpybyV-notch
methods such
test is aas Brinell, test
common Vickers
usedand
to Rockwell.
do this.
• Hardness testsbetter
Typically, the are often used to verify
the ductility the heatoftreatment
and strength a material,and
thephysical properties
better the
of the cast steel for individual furnace loads
toughness.
4.4. Casting Tolerancing
• A castings dimensional tolerance is developed from various factors.
• The tolerance of a raw casting is largely defined by the type of process
used.
• The adjustment made to the pattern depends on the alloy being poured.
• The size and the weight of the part will determine the tolerance required
on specific dimensions.
• For critical dimensions, a small amount of capability castings, using the
production process, can be poured before regular production begins.
• Critical dimensions of the parts should be designed so that they are
molded in as few components as possible.
4.4. Casting Tolerancing
CT according to process and materials

Casting tolerances (CT) achievable for several materials and mold

making processes.
4.4. Casting Tolerancing
Tolerances value according to dimensions and CT

95 +/-1.1

Different tolerances required for various dimensions.

4.4. Casting Tolerancing

93.9
95
96.1
4.4. Casting Tolerancing
Flatness
• Cleaning and heat treating will
affect parts dimensions.
• Heat treating specifically will
affect flatness and straightness
of a casting.
• The table shows the achievable
flatness for an investment cast
part, with and without
mechanical straightening.
Investment Cast Flatness
Tolerance
4.5. Surface Finish
• The surface finish will be
modified in areas where a gate
or riser has been removed.
• This can be a broken area
where the gate was snapped
off or a ground/cut surface Cast Surface Finish
where the gate was removed. An investment cast part will yield
• The surface finish in all casting about a 125 μ-inch RMS surface, a
processes can be modified die cast part about a 64 μ-inch
throughout the part by shot or RMS surface while a sand casting
bead blasting at extra cost to will be around 500 μ-inch RMS.
the final part.
4.6. Internal Soundness
• The internal soundness of a casting can be important in some
applications.
• It is very difficult to cast a defect free casting.
• Determination of the acceptable defect level in a casting is important
and over specification of the defect level will lead to higher scrap
rates and higher casting costs.
• There are many different casting defects that can occur. With the
three most common being, porosity, inclusions and shrinkage.
4.7. Casting Defect1
• Porosity; is a void in the casting that is characterized by smooth
interior walls that are shiny or in the case of iron, are covered with a
thin layer of graphite. These voids can appear in one large cavity or
several small cavities dispersed throughout the casting.
• Inclusions; are a piece of foreign material in the cast part. An
inclusion can be a metallic, intermetallic or non-metallic piece of
material in the metal matrix.
• Shrinkage; Is a vacancy typically internal to the casting that is caused
by a molten island of material that does not have enough feed metal
to supply it. Shrinkage cavities are characterized by a rough, dendritic,
interior surface.
34
4.7. casting Defects
a) Gas Porosity
Possible Causes:
1. Mechanical Gas Entrapment
a) A large amount of mold or core gas
with insufficient evacuation from
the mold cavity
b) Entrainment of air due to
turbulence in the gating system
2. Metallurgical Origin
a) Excessive gas content in melt Radiograph of Gas Porosity
b) In the case of steel and irons,
formation of carbon monoxide.

35
4.7. casting Defects
a) Gas Porosity
• Remedies to avoid gas porosity formation
• Include vents in the mold cavity to allow the escape or air
• Review gating design for turbulent areas
• Ensure that the sprue is kept full during pouring
• Reduce pouring height
• For steel, deoxidize the melt adequately
• For iron, avoid using rusty charge material which will introduce oxides
into the melt
• For non-ferrous alloys, avoid excessive melt temperatures and use
care in degassing. 36
4.7. Casting Defect
b) Inclusions
Possible Causes:
1. Metallic Inclusions
a) Charge materials which have not been
completely dissolved in the melt.
b) Exposed core wires or rods.
2. Intermetallic Inclusions
a) Combinations formed between the melt
material and a metallic impurity
Radiograph of Inclusions
3. Non-metallic Inclusions
a) Loose sand in the mold
b) Flakes of refractory coating breaking loose
from the mold
37
4.7. Casting Defect
b) Inclusions
Remedies to avoid existence of inclusions
• Avoid entrainment of slag and dross from the furnace while filling the
ladle
• Use siphon, teapot and bottom pour ladles
• Keep pouring basins and sprue filled during pouring
• Use strainer cores or filters
• Create slag traps in casting gating
• Care should be taken when creating molds to reduce the likely hood
of non-metallic inclusions
38
4.7. Casting Defects
c) Shrinkage
Possible Causes:
1. Volume contraction of the metal,
either from liquid contraction of
the melt or from contraction
during phase change from liquid
to solid
2. Insufficient feed metal in defect
areas. Gating, feeding system and Radiograph of Shrinkage Porosity
part design creates locally hot
areas within the casting that are
not fed well. 39
4.7. Casting Defects
c) Shrinkage
• Remedies to avoid shrinkage
• Avoid heavy isolated casting sections that are difficult to feed.
• Design the part with a progressive change in casting thickness
• Design the gating and feeding system to provide for directional
solidification back to the risers.
• For gray and ductile irons, increase carbon and silicon content as allowed,
to decrease volumetric contraction of the metal during solidification
• Limit the pouring temperature so that the liquid contraction is
minimized.

40
4.8. Inspection Methods for Defect Detection
• Nondestructive
Additional testing depends
and/or on some
destructive of the
tests variables
(a part listed
is milled below;
in small layers to
• reveal defects)
The casting hasmay be employed
a proven historyto evaluate
with the
little to nosoundness
issues of a casting.
• These inspection methods are employed in some way on a majority of
• The design uses large safety factors
castings.
•• The application is not critical
Although care must be taken when specifying the defect severity levels
• for
Theeach
partmethod.
can be cast with little trouble
•Extra
Overtesting maywill
specifying bealways
required
leadif:to a more expensive part than what is
• needed.
The design is new and untested
•• All materials
There are low that are specified
safety haveincertain
factors used minimum inspection criteria,
the design
typically involving chemical analysis and mechanical property verification.
4.8. Inspection Methods for Defect Detection
a) Magnetic Particle Inspection
• This is a non-destructive test used to detect surface or near-surface defects in ferrous
materials only.
• An externally applied magnetic field or rectified AC current is passed through the
material.
• A liquid that contains either magnetic iron oxide or finely divided iron particles is
applied to the part.
• These magnetic particles are attracted to the area of the defect and display the defect
for an operator.
• Need experience to interpret the results and ensure that magnetic anomalies are not
read as defects.
• The defects that are found in the tested part are compared to reference photographs
to determine the severity level of the defect.
4.8. Inspection Methods for Defect Detection
b) Radiography
• Radiography is used if internal inspection of a casting is needed.
• Internal defects such as shrinkage voids, porosity, and inclusions can
be found using this method.
• The defects are compared to reference radiographs to determine the
severity level of the defect.
• Severity levels range from 1-5, one being small, five being large.
4.8. Inspection Methods for Defect Detection
b) Radiography

X-ray coverage
There will be areas in a cast that an x-ray cannot be obtained. If
these areas are critical another method of inspection may need
to be employed.
4.8. Inspection Methods for Defect Detection
c) Destructive Testing
• This method uses a mill to cut away layer
by layer in the part and reveal the
defects present in the part.
• This method will reveal large defects but
Level 1 defects and metallic inclusions
that are revealed in a radiograph may
not be seen using this method.

“Bread loaf" cutting method. This method is

typically used to inspect large part that does
not have tight control on the casting defect
level.
 4.8. Inspection Methods for Defect Detection
c) Destructive Testing
•• Destructive
This method of
testing
gives a very
testing good
is also three
a quick
dimensional
and easy check view of
the void,radiographic
where where as a
radiograph
inspectionwillmayonlynotbe
a two dimensional
be readily available.
representation.
A method used for
Defect inspection of a
majority of parts. It is a
localized inspection for
a large shrinkage cavity
Referances
1. Metallography and Microstructures, Vol 9, ASM Handbook, page
157, ASM International, 2004. George F. Vander Voort, FASM