Larry Brown

Tom Holme

Chapter 14
Nuclear Chemistry

Jacqueline Bennett • SUNY Oneonta

www.cengage.com/chemistry/brown
Chapter Objectives

• Describe cosmic rays and some of the ways they influence

Earth and its atmosphere.

• Write, balance, and interpret equations for simple nuclear

reactions.

• Define and distinguish among various modes of nuclear

decay, including alpha decay, beta decay, positron emission,
and electron capture.

• Interpret the kinetics of radioactive decay using first-order rate

equations.

2
Chapter Objectives

• Use the chart of the nuclides to understand and explain how

radioactive decay processes increase nuclear stability.

• Use Einstein’s equation to calculate the binding energies of

nuclei and the energy changes of nuclear reactions.

• Describe nuclear fission and fusion, and explain how both

processes can be highly exothermic.

• Discuss the potential of both fission and fusion as energy

sources, and identify the pros and cons of the two
technologies.

3
Chapter Objectives

• Explain how penetrating power and ionizing power combine to

determine the effect of radiation on materials, including living
tissues.

• Describe how radioisotopes can be used in medical imaging

techniques to monitor organ function.

4
Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating

• Cosmic Rays - subatomic particles traveling at high speeds

that constantly bombard Earth.

• Majority are atomic nuclei.

• 87% hydrogen nuclei.
• 12% helium nuclei.
• The rest are heavier nuclei.

• Can originate outside the solar system.

5
Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating

• Cosmic rays originate from solar flares on the sun, which can
accelerate highly charged cations until they approach the
speed of light.

• Distribution of atomic nuclei reflect composition of the sun.

• Hydrogen and helium are the most prevalent.

• Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, and

iron are also present.

6
Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating

• The energies of cosmic rays are much higher than in other

areas of chemistry.
• Chemical energies measured in kJ/mol.
• Cosmic ray energies measured in electron volts (eV)
• 1 eV = 96.5853 kJ mol-1
• Cosmic rays are in the MeV or GeV range.

• Upon entering the atmosphere, cosmic rays start to collide

with gas molecules and induce nuclear reactions.

• Formation of radioactive 14C is an example.

7
Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating

• When a free neutron is absorbed by a nitrogen nucleus, a

proton is emitted and 14C is produced.

• Terrestrial carbon is 98.9% 12C and 1.11% 13C. Both are

stable.

• C is unstable and undergoes spontaneous radioactive

14

decay.

• Particles are ejected and a nitrogen atom is formed.

8
Radioactive Decay

• Nuclear reactions are written in a format similar to chemical

reactions.

• Reactants and products are atoms or subatomic particles

instead of molecules.

• Nuclide symbols (E) are written to represent the

composition of a nuclide.

• These symbols can be used to represent atoms, ions, and

nuclei. 9
Radioactive Decay

• Nuclide symbols for subatomic particles:

• Atomic number = charge on the nucleus.

• Nuclear reactions are written using nuclide symbols.

• Nuclear reactions are balanced when the sums of the mass

numbers and atomic numbers for both sides of the equation
are equal.
10
Radioactive Decay

• Soon after uranium was discovered to be radioactive, Ernest

Rutherford demonstrated two distinct types of radiation.

• One type was stopped by thin pieces of aluminum, alpha

rays.

• The second type passed through the aluminum, beta rays.

11
Radioactive Decay

• In magnetic fields alpha and beta rays are deflected,

indicating they carry charge.

• Alpha and beta rays were deflected in opposite directions,

indicating they held opposite charges.

• One type of particle was deflected more than the other

indicating their mass to charge ratios were different.

• A third type of radiation, gamma rays, was revealed and which

passed through the magnetic field undeflected.

12
Radioactive Decay

• A thin sheet of aluminum blocks alpha rays but not beta rays.
In a magnetic field, beta and alpha particles are deflected in
different directions, while gamma rays are undeflected.
13
Radioactive Decay

• Alpha particles, α, are the more massive and positively

charged particles.
• Alpha particles are helium nuclei,

• Beta particles, , are lighter and negatively charged.

• Beta particles are electrons, , emitted from the
nucleus.

• Gamma rays, γ, are the particles unaffected by the magnetic

field.
• Gamma rays are high-energy photons of electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the nucleus.
14
Alpha Decay

• During alpha decay, an alpha particle is emitted from the

nucleus.

• The mass number decreases by 4.

• The atomic number decreases by 2.

• The reactant nucleus is the parent.

• The product nucleus is the daughter.

15
Example Problem 14.1

• Complete the equations for each of the following nuclear

decay processes.

16
Beta Decay

• During beta decay, a beta particle and an antineutrino, , are

emitted from the nucleus.

• A neutron decays into a proton, a beta particle, and an

antineutrino. The proton remains in the nucleus.

• The atomic number increases by 1.

17
Example Problem 14.2

• Complete the equations for each of the following beta decay

reactions using the beta nuclide symbol to represent the beta
particle.

18
Gamma Decay

• Gamma decay is the emission of high-energy photons and

tends to accompany other types of decay.

• Protons and neutrons occupy energy levels within a

nucleus analogous to energy levels for electrons.

• When alpha and beta particles leave the nucleus, the

nucleus is left in an excited state.

• The nucleus returns to the ground state by emitting a

gamma ray.

19
Gamma Decay

• The energy level spacing in the nucleus is very large.

• The emitted gamma rays have high energies.
• Wavelength ~10-12 m and frequency ~3 × 1020 s-1.
• Gamma ray energies are on the order of 108 kJ/mol,
several orders of magnitude larger than ordinary chemical
reaction energies.

• Gamma decay does not change the atomic number or mass

number of a nucleus, and generally accompanies beta decay.

20
Electron Capture and Positron Emission

• In electron capture, the nucleus captures an electron,

converting a proton to a neutron and decreases the nuclear
charge by one.
• The reverse of beta emission.

• Positron decay occurs when a proton decays into a neutron,

positron, and a neutrino, v.
• A positron, , is a positively charged electron.
• The nuclear charge decreases by one.

21
Positron Emission

• A positron and an electron form a matter-

antimatter pair.

• Matter-antimatter pairs are identical in

mass and spin, but opposite in
charge.

• When a positron and electron collide,

they are annihilated and their mass
converted into energy.

• Positron - electron collisions produce

two 511-keV gamma-ray photons,
traveling in opposite directions. 22
Example Problem 14.3

• Complete the following equations with the correct particles

and identify the mode of decay.

23
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

• The activity of a sample of N nuclei is the rate of disintegration

of the sample, given by ΔN/Δt.

• The SI unit of nuclear activity is the becquerel (Bq),

defined as one nuclear disintegration per second (dps).

• The curie (Ci) is an older and larger unit defined as the

number of disintegrations per second in 1 gram of radium-
226.

• 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq

24
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

• For radioactive decay, the activity of a sample decreases

exponentially with time.

• The activity is proportional to the number of nuclei

present, N.

• N also decreases exponentially.

• N0 is the initial number of nuclei and k is the decay

constant.

• Radioactive decay follows first order kinetics. 25

Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

• The half-life, t1/2, is the time required for half the sample to
disintegrate.

• Radioactive decay
always follows first-order
kinetics. The half-life is
constant for any given
isotope.

26
Example Problem 14.4

• The half-life of carbon-14, used in radiocarbon dating, is 5730

years. What is the decay constant for carbon-14?

27
Radiocarbon Dating

• 14
C is continually formed through the interaction of cosmic
rays with the atmosphere.

• The 14C is incorporated into living plants and animals and

the 14C/12C ratio remains constant over time.

• When a plant or animal dies, 14C is no longer incorporated

and its activity decreases with time.

• An artifact’s age is determined by measuring its 14C/12C

ratio and then comparing it to the 14C/12C ratio of living
organisms.
28
Radiocarbon Dating

• First order kinetics equations are used to determine the age

of the artifact.

• Dendrochronology, which is based on counting growth rings in

long-lived trees, has been used to calibrate carbon dating.

• Ages are determined to within ±40 to 100 years.

• Objects less than 60,000 years old can be carbon dated.

29
Example Problem 14.5

• A piece of cloth is discovered in a burial pit in the

southwestern United States. A tiny sample of the cloth is
burned to form CO2, which is then analyzed. The 14C/12C ratio
is 0.250 times the ratio in today’s atmosphere. How old is the
cloth?

30
Radiocarbon Dating

• Half-lives of some
radioactive
isotopes. Long
lived isotopes, such
as uranium, can be
used to date
minerals and
geological
formations.

31
Nuclear Stability

• The Chart of the Nuclides is a plot of the number of protons

versus the number of neutrons for all known, stable nuclei.

• The chart is used in a manner similar to the periodic table,

to look for patterns and trends to explain nuclear stability.

• Virtually all stable nuclides are found in the central region in

the chart of the nuclides, in a region called the band of
stability.

• The nuclides outside the band of stability are in the region

referred to as the sea of instability.
32
Nuclear Stability

• The chart of the

nuclides is a plot
of atomic
number (Z)
versus neutron
number (N) for
all known
nuclides.

• All stable
isotopes lie
in the region
shown with
blue dots.

33
Nuclear Stability

• For low atomic numbers, the band of stability is found along a

line with Z and N approximately equal.

• Above around Z = 20, the band of stability deviates from

straight line behavior.

• A nucleus with more protons appears to require additional

neutrons to maintain stability.

• Above Z > 83, no number of neutrons can stabilize the

nucleus and its large collection of protons.

34
Nuclear Stability

• Isotopes below or to the the right of the band of stability tend

to have more neutrons than necessary and emit beta particles
to gain stability.

• Beta decay converts a neutron to a proton.

• Isotopes above or to the left of the band of stability have more

protons than necessary and undergo positron emission or
electron capture.

• Positron emission and electron capture convert a proton to

a neutron.

35
Nuclear Stability

• The band of stability ends with Z = 83.

• Beyond Z = 83, all nuclei are unstable and decay to reach
a stable nucleus.

• Heavier nuclei tend to emit alpha particles, decaying

successively, often with beta particles emitted, until a stable
nucleus is formed.
• Alpha decay is a quick way to lower proton and neutron
numbers.

• A decay series is the series of radioactive decays a nucleus

undergoes to reach a stable isotope.

36
Nuclear Stability

• The decay series

starting with 238U
involves a series of
alpha and beta
emissions before it
eventually produces a
stable 206Pb product.
37
Nuclear Stability

• The nucleons (protons and neutrons) are held together by the

strong nuclear force.
• The strong nuclear force acts through the very short
distances between nucleons and overcomes the
coulombic repulsion between protons in the nucleus.

• The strong nuclear force acts between protons and neutrons.

• Neutrons help hold the nucleus together.
• Neutrons may “dilute” protons in the nucleus, keeping the
protons farther apart to minimize coulombic repulsion.
• These two neutron functions may help explain the need for
a larger ratio of neutrons to protons in heavier nuclei.
38
Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

• Binding energy is the energy released when a nucleus is

formed from a collection of free nucleons.

• Binding energy is also the energy required to take apart a

nucleus.

• The greater the binding energy, the more stable the

nucleus.

39
Binding Energy

• A helium-4 atom is composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

• Each proton has a mass of 1.007825 u.
• Each neutron has a mass of 1.008665 u.
• The sum of 2 protons and 2 neutrons is 4.032980 u.
• The experimentally observed mass of helium-4 is
4.002603 u.

• The difference between calculated mass and measured mass

is the mass defect, Δm.
• Δm = 0.030377 u for helium-4.
• The missing mass is converted to binding energy, Eb,
according to Einstein’s equation, E = mc2.
• Eb = 4.5335 × 10-12 J or 2.7301 × 109 kJ mol-1.
40
Binding Energy

• The binding
energy per
nucleon plotted
as a function of
mass number for
elements
hydrogen through
uranium. The
curve reaches a
maximum at 56Fe.

41
Magic Numbers and Nuclear Shells

• Of the more than 260 stable nuclei, most have even numbers
of both protons and neutrons.

• Only a handful, such as 14N, have odd numbers of both.

• The rest have either even numbers of protons and odd

numbers of neutrons or vice versa.

42
Magic Numbers and Nuclear Shells

• Isotopes with atomic numbers, Z, or neutron numbers, N, of 2,

8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, or 184 show special stability.

• These values are referred to as magic numbers.

• Any isotope in which Z or N is a magic number can be

expected to be especially stable.

• If both Z and N are magic number values, the effect is

greater and the nucleus is said to be “doubly magic.”

43
Transmutation, Fission, and Fusion

• There are three categories of nuclear reactions.

• Transmutation, where one nucleus changes into another,

either by natural decay or in response to some outside
intervention.

• Fission, a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei.

• Fusion, light nuclei merge into a heavier nucleus.

44
Transmutation

• 10
B reacts via neutron capture to produce 11B*, an unstable
intermediate nucleus called the compound nucleus, which
decays almost instantly like an activated complex in a
chemical reaction.

• The compound nucleus decays almost instantly, emitting

particles and energy to produce a stable nucleus.

45
Fission

• Nuclei that undergo fission are fissionable or fissile.

• Some fission reactions are spontaneous.
• Others are induced by neutron bombardment, which can
also increase the rate of a spontaneous fission process.

• During an induced fission reaction, a neutron is absorbed by a

large fissile nucleus, producing a compound nucleus that
separates into two smaller parts, emitting neutrons in the
process.

46
Fission

• The neutrons produced during fission can induce further

fission via a process called a chain reaction.

• Chain reactions occur when there are sufficient fissile

atoms to ensure the produced neutrons can induce fission
before escaping the sample.

• Critical mass - the amount of material required to sustain a

chain reaction.

• Controlled fission can be used to generate electricity.

47
Fission

• Bombarding
enriched
uranium with
neutrons
induces the
fission of 235U,
and each decay
produces
additional
neutrons for
further induced
fission.

48
Fission

• Fission and fusion

both lead to more
stable nuclei. Light
nuclei undergo
fusion to produce a
heavier product.
Heavier nuclei
undergo fission to
produce lighter
nuclei.

49
Example Problem 14.6

• Calculate the energy released by a nucleus of uranium-235 if

it splits into a barium-141 nucleus and a krypton-92 nucleus
according to the equation shown below.

50
Nuclear Reactors

• U is the fissionable material found in commercial nuclear

235

reactors.
• Only 0.72% of naturally occurring U is fissile 235U.
• Uranium is enriched to increase the percentage 235U
before it can be used as fuel.

• Enriching uranium separates 235U from 238U.

• 238U makes up more than 99% of naturally occurring
uranium.
• Weapons-grade uranium is typically >90% 235U.
• Nuclear reactors contain 3-5% 235U.

51
Nuclear Reactors

• The uranium oxide fuel is embedded into fuel rods and placed
in a water-covered reactor core.
• The water cools the fuel rods and moderates the reactor,
slowing down fast neutrons.
• The water carries heat released to the steam turbine.
Steam turns the turbine, which generates electricity.
• The chain reaction is initiated by a source of neutrons.
• The chain reaction is regulated via control rods.
• The control rods are inserted between the fuel rods to slow
or stop the chain reaction.
• Control rods are composed of cadmium or boron and
regulate the chain reaction by absorbing extra neutrons to
maintain a steady rate of fission.

52
Nuclear Reactors

• The general design used in all U.S. nuclear power plants.

53
Nuclear Waste

• Several of the fission products in a nuclear reactor are radioactive.

• The radioactive products are concentrated in the used or
“spent” fuel rods.
• The fuel rods are referred to as high-level nuclear waste.
• The half-lives of several of the products are very long, requiring
special storage or disposal.

• Spent fuel rods can be reprocessed into new fuel rods.

• Reprocessing is not carried out in the United States due to
regulatory concerns and nuclear nonproliferation treaties.

• All high-level waste is currently stored on-site at the reactor.

• On-site storage is not a long term solution.

54
Nuclear Waste

• Yucca Mountain, in southwest Nevada,

was proposed as the site for an
extensive feasibility study for long term
storage of high-level waste because it
fulfills several general engineering
considerations.
• Yucca Mountain is extremely remote,
the climate is dry, and the water level
is about 1000 feet below the
potential burial vault.
• The storage facility must be remain
intact for thousands of years.
• The construction materials will need
to withstand the effects of high levels
of radiation.
55
Fusion

• In the sun, four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium

nucleus, releasing energy in the process.
• The reaction of 4 protons is a stepwise process, too slow
to be used in a nuclear reactor.

• The two heavier isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium (2H) and

tritium (3H) can be fused to produce helium
• The reaction produces more energy per nucleus than
fission.

56
Fusion

• Deuterium is naturally occurring; it makes up 0.015% of all

hydrogen atoms.
• The available supply of deuterium is practically unlimited.

• Tritium can be produced from 6Li.

• Fusion does not produce high-level radioactive waste.

• Energetic neutrons can induce nuclear reactions in reactor
materials, producing some level of radioactivity.
• Risk minimized by careful choices of engineering
materials.
57
Fusion

• During fusion, the repulsion of positively charged nuclei must

be overcome.
• Fusion reactions initiated at temperatures on the order of
106 K.
• High temperature required to force nuclei close enough to
overcome coulombic repulsion.

• The first application of fusion was the hydrogen bomb.

• A fission bomb initiated the fusion reaction.
• Controlled fusion must use a nondestructive means of
initiation.
• As an energy source, fusion must release more energy
than it requires as input.
58
Fusion

• The fusion reaction must be confined somehow.

• Solid reactor materials would melt at the high initiation
temperatures.

• Two promising means for solving the confinement problem.

• Magnetic confinement: The high-energy plasma produced
at 106 K is controlled in a magnetic field.
• Inertial confinement: A pellet of fuel is dropped into a
reaction chamber and imploded by high-energy lasers.

• So far, more energy is required to produce fusion than is

released.
59
Interaction of Radiation and Matter

• There are three factors governing the effects of radiation on

matter.

• The amount of radiation to which matter is exposed.

• Penetrating power of the radiation.

• Ionizing power of the radiation.

• If radiation energy is greater than typical ionization

energies for atoms and molecules, the radiation could
induce ionization in material encountered.
60
Ionizing and Penetrating Power of Radiation

• Radiation is classified as either ionizing or nonionizing.

• The distinction is based on the energy carried by a photon

or particle.

• Nonionizing radiation includes visible light, radio waves and

microwaves.
• Photon energies are less than typical ionization energies.

• Ionizing radiation includes alpha and beta particles, X-rays,

and gamma rays.
• Photon energies are greater than typical ionization
energies.
61
Ionizing and Penetrating Power of Radiation

• Ionization radiation can cause significant damage to any material

encountered, including living tissue, by free radical formation.

• Ionizing radiation ejects electrons from atoms and molecules it

encounters.
• Free radicals scavenge electrons from other molecules, causing
damage to tissue.
• Through free radical formation, ionizing radiation can lead
directly to cell death.

• Penetrating power must be taken into account when examining the

impact of radiation on matter.
• Penetrating power is how far a particle penetrates into a
material before its energy is absorbed or dissipated.

62
Ionizing and Penetrating Power of Radiation

• Alpha particles have greater ionizing power.

• The relatively large size and charge of alpha particles

prevent alpha particles from penetrating deeply into
matter.

• The dissipated energy can cause surface burns on the

skin, but do no serious harm because alpha particles can
not reach internal organs.

• Alpha particles produced inside the body cause much

greater damage because energy is deposited in the
internal organs. This is how radon gas causes serious
tissue damage. 63
Ionizing and Penetrating Power of Radiation

• Beta particles have lower energy than alpha particles.

• Due to their smaller size/charge, most beta particles can

pass several centimeters into the body.

• Due to its penetrating power, beta radiation is often more

dangerous than that from alpha particles.

• Gamma particles can pass entirely though the body,

depositing energy in the vital organs, causing damage.

64
Ionizing and Penetrating Power of Radiation

• The possible health hazards from exposure to ionizing

radiation depend on the penetrating power of the radiation.

65
Ionizing and Penetrating Power of Radiation

• Ionizing and penetrating power must be considered when designing

space-bound electronic devices.

• Computer chips and other solid-state devices rely on carefully

controlled distributions of electrons and holes in semiconductor
materials.

• Production of ions by ionizing radiation can cause catastrophic

failure of electronic devices.

• The single event effect results when a single ionizing particle

can produce large numbers of ions.

• Electronics in satellites are packaged in “hardened” materials to

protect against cosmic rays. 66
Methods of Detecting Radiation

• To assess radiation doses, the type and amount of radiation

must be measured.

• The first measurements used a zinc sulfide phosphor,

which produced tiny flashes of light when struck by
radiation and the light flashes were counted manually.

• A scintillation counter uses a fluorescent screen to detect

radiation, but the resulting photon strikes a phosphor that
releases an electron instead of light flashes.

• A photomultiplier tube amplifies the electronic signal,

producing a current pulse registered electronically.

67
Methods of Detecting Radiation

• The Geiger counter is a portable detector used to measure

radioactivity.
• A glass tube containing a gas at low pressure (0.1 atm) is
coated on the inside with a metal that acts as a cathode.
• An anode wire runs down the center of the tube.
• A high voltage is applied across the electrodes.

• Alpha and beta particles enter though a window and ionize the gas
atoms.
• Electrons released by the gas atoms are attracted to the anode,
and ionize more gas as they travel to the anode, releasing more
electrons.
• When the avalanche of electrons reaches the anode, a current
pulse is recorded.

68
Methods of Detecting Radiation

• In a Geiger-Mueller tube, radiation passes through a thin

window into a gas-filled tube, producing ions in the gas. The
resulting ions are attracted to oppositely charged electrodes,
producing a pulse of electric current.
69
Methods of Detecting Radiation

• A film-badge dosimeter monitors the radiation exposure for

people who work with radioactive isotopes.
• Radiation darkens photographic plates.
• The darkened badge and a record of exposure provides a
warning mechanism if safety levels are exceeded.

• All measurement methods must take background radiation

into account when making measurements.
• Cosmic rays and natural radioactive isotopes in soil, air,
and water are sources of background radiation.
• Background radiation must be subtracted from
measurements of radioactive sources.

70
Measuring Radiation Dose

• The interplay between ionizing power and penetrating power

results in a number of different ways to express radiation
dose.

• The quality factor, Q, is used to calculate the equivalent dose

and is also known as the relative biological effectiveness
(RBE).

• The value of Q varies from a value of one for high-energy

photons to about 20 for alpha particles.

71
Measuring Radiation Dose

• Definitions and units used to quantify exposure to radiation.

72
Modern Medical Imaging Methods
• Modern imaging methods include the use of radioisotopes to obtain
images of specific organs and elaborate techniques such as
positron emission tomography (PET).

• During an X-ray, X-ray radiation passes through the body and a

photographic image is produced based on the amount of radiation
absorbed.

• Bone absorbs X-rays more strongly than organs or other

tissues, and is an excellent orthopedic diagnostic tool.

• X-rays can also be used to examine the structure of some

organs, such as a chest X-ray to examine the lungs or heart.

73
Modern Medical Imaging Methods
• The function of organs can be examined by selectively introducing
small amounts of an appropriate radioisotope into the target organ.
• Radiation from the isotope is monitored to produce a detailed
image of the organ.
• Structure, as well as function, can be revealed.

• The radioactive isotopes are introduced into target organs by taking

advantage of biochemistry.
• Certain atoms and compounds are taken up specifically by
particular organs.
• The thyroid gland uses iodine to produce thyroid hormone.
• Radioactive 131I is introduced and carried to the thyroid via
natural biochemical pathways.

74
Modern Medical Imaging Methods
• In the thyroid, the 131I undergoes beta decay.
• Detection of the gamma particles produces an image of the
thyroid gland.

• The procedure is extremely safe because the radiation dose is fairly

small and the half-life of the isotopes is not too long.

• PET images are based on isotopes that emit positrons.

• Neutron-deficient isotopes tend to emit positrons.
• Available positron emitters are 11C, 18F, 13N, and 15O.
• These elements are found in common organic molecules,
allowing for easy incorporation into appropriate biological
molecules.

75
Modern Medical Imaging Methods
• Each decay of the radioisotope releases a positron.
• Positrons have extremely short lifetimes in the body.
• Positrons travel no more than a couple of millimeters before
encountering an electron.
• The positron and electron undergo matter-antimatter
annihilation.

• The positron-electron annihilation produces two gamma rays 180

degrees apart.
• Detectors register the gamma rays, and computers map out the
path taken by the tagged compounds.
• The result is a map of a slice through the body.

76
Modern Medical Imaging Methods

• Positron emission tomography (PET) produces high-quality

images of the brain and other organs.

77