BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

What is Boolean Algebra?

Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and
simplify the digital (logic) circuits. It uses only
the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also
called as Binary Algebra or logical Algebra.
Boolean algebra was invented by George
Boole in 1854.
Rule in Boolean Algebra
Two Valued Logical Symbol:
• Aristotle made use of a two valued logical system in
devising a method for getting to the truth, given a set of
true assumptions.
• The symbols that are used to represent the two levels of
a two valued logical system are 1 and 0.
• The symbol 1 may represent a closed switch, a true
statement, an “on” lamp, a correct action, a high voltage,
or many other things.
• The symbol “O” may represent on open switch, a false
statement, an “off” lamp, an incorrect action, a low
voltage, or many other things.
Fundamental Concepts of Boolean Algebra:
• Boolean algebra is a logical algebra in which symbols are
used to represent logic levels.
• Any symbol can be used, however, letters of the alphabet
are generally used.
• Since the logic levels are generally associated with the
symbols 1 and 0, whatever letters are used as variables
that can take the values of 1 or 0.
• Boolean algebra has only two mathematical operations,
addition and multiplication.
• These operations are associated with the OR gate and
the AND gate, respectively.
Logical Addition:
• When the + (the logical addition) symbol is placed between
two variables, say X and Y, since both X and Y can take
only the role 0 and 1, we can define the + Symbol by
listing, all possible combinations for X and Y and the
resulting value of X + Y.
• The possible input and out put combinations may arranged
as follows:
• This table represents a standard binary addition,
except for the last entry. When both' X and Y
represents 1‟s, the value of X + Y is 1.
• The symbol + therefore does not has the “Normal”
meaning, but is a Logical addition symbol.
• The plus symbol (+) read as "OR", therefore X +Y is
read as X or Y.
• This concept may be extended to any number of
variables for example A + B + C +D = E Even if A,
B, C and D all had the values 1, the sum of the
values i.e. is 1.
Logical Multiplication:
• We can define the "." (logical multiplication) symbol or AND
operator by listing all possible combinations for (input)
variables X and Y and the resulting (output) value of X. Y
as,
Boolean Laws
• There are six types of Boolean Laws.

Commutative Law
• Any binary operation which satisfies the following
expression is referred to as commutative operation.

• Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the

variables does not have any effect on the output of a logic
circuit.
Associative Law
• This law states that the order in which the logic operations
are performed is irrelevant as their effect is the same.

Distributive Law
• Distributive law states the following condition.
ACTIVITY
Boolean Expression Simplification
Use the Boolean Algebra laws to simplify each of the Boolean
expressions. Create the logic gate circuit and truth table for the original
and simplified Boolean expressions to verify that the Boolean
expressions are equivalent.
Boolean Expression Boolean Laws Used
1. (A + B)(A+C)

2. A + AB

5. A + B (A + C) + AC
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
SIMPLIFICATION
LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• LAWS OF UNION
A+0=A
A+1=1
• LAWS OF INTERSECTION
A.0=0
A.1=A
• LAWS OF COMPLEMENT
A+A =1
A.A =0
• LAWS OF DOUBLE NEGATION
A=A
(A1)1 = A
• LAWS OF COMMUTATION LAWS OF ABSOPTION
A+B=B+A A + AB = A +B
A.B=B.A A + AB = A + B
• LAWS OF ASSOCIATION DE MORGAN’S THEOREM
A + (B+C) = (A + B) + C AB = A + B
A(BC) = (AB)C A+B = A B
• LAWS OF DISTRIBUTION
A (BC) = AB + AC
(A+B)(A +C) = A + BC
• LAWS OF TANTOLOGY
A+A=A
A.A=A
EXAMPLE

1. (A +B) (A+C)
Logic Gates:
• A logic gate is defined as a electronics circuit with
two or more input signals and one output signal.
• The most basic logic Circuits are OR gates, AND
gates, and invertors or NOT gates.
• Strictly speaking, invertors are not logic gates
since they have only one input signal; however
they are best introduced at the same time as
basic gates and will therefore be dealt in this
section.
OR Gate:
• An OR gate is a logic circuit with two or more input signals
and one output signal.
• The output signal will be high (logic 1) if any one input
signal is high (logic 1). OR gate performs logical addition
• A circuit that will functions as an OR gate can be
implemented in several ways.
• A mechanical OR gate can be fabricated by connecting two
switches in parallel as shown in figure 2.

Note: If the switch is "on", it is represented by 1, and if,

it is "off", it is represented by 0.
AND Gate:
• An AND gate is a logic circuit with two or more input
signals and one output signal.
• The output signal of an AND gate is high (logic 1) only if all
inputs signals are high (Logic 1).
• An AND gate performs logical multiplication on inputs. The
symbol for AND gate is
• A circuit that will functions as an AND gate can be
implemented in several ways.
• A mechanical AND gate can be fabricated by connecting two
switches in series as show in fig. 4
Complementation:
• The logical operation of complementary or
inverting a variable is performed in the Boolean
Algebra.
• The purpose of complementation is to invert the,
input signal, since there are only two values that
variables can assume in two-value logic system,
therefore if the input is 1, the output is 0 and if the
input is 0 the output is 1.
• The symbol used to represent complementation
of a variable is a bar (-) above the variable, for
example the complementation of A is written as _
A and is read as “complement of A” or “A not”.
 Invertors Or NOT gate:
• An inventor is a gate with only one .input signal and one
output signal; the output signal is always the opposite or
complement of the input signal.
• An invertor is also called a NOT gate because the output
not the same as the input.
The circle at the output or
input indicates inversion. It
also distinguish between the
symbol for the NOT gate or
the symbol for an
operational amplifier or
certain types of buffers,
because the symbol -►- can
also be used for diode.
NAND and NOR Gates
• The NAND and NOR gates are essentially the
opposite of the AND and OR gates, respectively.

Various representations of a NAND gate

Various representations of a NOR gate
Gates with More Inputs
• Gates can be designed to accept three or more input
values
• A three-input AND gate, for example, produces an output
of 1 only if all input values are 1.
EXCLUSIVE-OR GATE (X-OR) GATE
• An X-OR gate is a two input, one output logic circuit. X-OR
gate assumes logic 1 state when any of its two inputs
assumes a logic 1 state.
• When both the inputs assume the logic 0 state or when
both the inputs assume the logic 1 state, the output
assumes a logic 0 state.
• The output of the X-OR gate will be the sum of the modulo
sum of its inputs. X-OR gate is also termed as anti-
coincidence gate or inequality detector.
• An X-OR gate can also be used as inverter by connecting
one of the two input terminals to logic1 and also by
inputting the sequence to be inverted to the other terminal.
EXCLUSIVE-NOR (X-NOR) GATE
• An X-NOR gate is a combination of an X-OR gate and a NOT
gate. The X-NOR gate is also a two input, one output concept.
• The output of the X-NOR gate will be logic 1 state when both
the inputs assume a 0 state or when both the inputs assume a
1 state.
• The output of the X-NOR gate will be logic 0 state when one
of the inputs assume a 0 state and the other a 1 state.
• It is also named as coincidence gate, because its output will
be 1 only when the inputs coincide. X-NOR gate can also be
used as inverter by connecting one of the two input terminals
to logic 0 and also by inputting the sequence to be inverted to
the other terminal.
ACTIVITY
Write the Boolean expression for each of these logic gates,
showing how the output (Q) algebraically relates to the inputs (A
and B):
QUIZ #1
Identify each of these logic gates by name, and complete their respective
truth tables.
Circuits
• Two general categories
– In a combinational circuit, the input values explicitly
determine the output
– In a sequential circuit, the output is a function of the
input values as well as the existing state of the circuit
• As with gates, we can describe the operations of entire
circuits using three notations
– Boolean expressions
– logic diagrams
– truth tables
Combinational Circuits
• Gates are combined into circuits by using the output of
one gate as the input for another

Because there are three inputs to

this circuit, eight rows are required
to describe all possible input
combinations
This same circuit using Boolean
algebra: (AB + AC)
Consider the following Boolean expression: A(B + C)
Designing Combinational Logic Circuits
Each set of input conditions that is to produce a 1 output is
implemented by a separate AND gate. The AND outputs are
ORed to produce the final output.
Complete Design Procedure
Any logic problem can be solved using the following step-
by-step procedure.
1. Interpret the problem and set up a truth table to
describe its operation.
2. Write the AND (product) term for each case where the
output is 1.
3. Write the sum-of-products (SOP) expression for the
output.
4. Simplify the output expression if possible.
5. Implement the circuit for the final, simplified expression.
The following example illustrates the complete design
procedure.
EXAMPLE
ANSWER
ACTIVITY
RECAP
What is Combinational Logic Circuit?

In case of combinational logic circuits, the generated output

at any given time depends on the current inputs at any
specific time.
The main features of combinational circuits are:
• Graphical symbols: They depict the linked layout
of logic gates.
• Boolean equations: In these equations, the output
signals are depicted as boolean functions of various
input signals.
• Truth table: This table produces the ‘binary output
signals required for the set of 2nd input signals.
• These time independent circuits are easy to design,
fast and non-dependent on previous inputs for the
sake of generating output.
SEQUENCIAL LOGIC CIRCUIT
• Sequential logic circuits are a certain category of circuits
wherein the output is dependent on the value of the
present inputs and the sequence of the past outputs alike.
• In sequential circuits, the output changes in line with the
sequence of inputs inserted.
• In other words, sequential logic circuits comprise of
memory space for storing immediate results.
• To cite an example, sequential circuits keep a record of
whether logic level 0 or 1 has been connected to a given
input; the same fact is employed to the output thus
generated. The memory devices are generally made up of
simple OR gates.
• Examples of such circuits include clocks, flip-flops, bi-
stables, counters, memories, and registers. The actions of the
circuits depend on the range of basic sub-circuits.

There are two types of sequential circuits – asynchronous

and synchronous circuits.
TWO TYPES OF SEQUENCIAL LOGIC CIRCUIT
 Synchronous Sequential Circuit
 Synchronous sequential circuits are digital circuits governed
by clock signals.
 The transition from one state to another takes place only by
the application of specified clock signal*, even if the inputs
change.
 Synchronous sequential circuits are also known as clocked
sequential circuit.
 Asynchronous Sequential Circuit
 Asynchronous sequential circuits are digital circuits that are
not driven by clock. They can be called as self-timed circuits.
 The transition from one state to another takes place
immediately once the inputs change.
Examples of Sequential Logic Circuits
• Clocks
State changes of most sequential circuits occur at times
specified by free-running clock signals. As the name implies,
sequential logic circuits require a means by which events can
be sequenced.
• Flip-Flops
The basic building block of the combinational circuit has logic
gates, while indeed the basic building block of a sequential
circuit is a flip-flop. Flip-flop has a better and greater usage in
shift register, counters and memory devices. It is a storage
device capable of storing one bit of data. Flip flop has two
inputs and two outputs labeled as Q and Q’. It is normal and
complements.
• Bi-Stables
In most cases, the bi-stables are indicated by a box or circle.
Lines in or around bi-stables not only mark them as bi-stables
but also indicate how they function. Bi-stables are of two
types latch and flip flop. The bi-stables have two stable states
one is SET and the other one is RESET. They can retain
either of these stages indefinitely, which makes them useful
for storage purposes. Latches and flip-flops are different in the
way they change from one state to another.
• Counters
A counter is a register that goes throughout a predetermined
sequence of states upon the application of clock pulses. From
another viewpoint, a counter is some sort of sequential circuit
whose state diagram is a single cycle. In other words, counters
are a particular case of a finite state machine. The output is
generally a state value.
• Registers
Registers are clocked sequential circuits. A register is a
collection of flip-flops; each flip-flop is capable of storing one bit
of information. An n-bit register consists of n flip-flops and is
capable of storing n bits of information. Besides flip-flops, a
register usually contains a combinational logic to perform some
simple tasks. The flip-flops hold binary information. The gates
to determine how the information is shifted into the register.
Counters are a special type of register. A counter goes through
a predetermined sequence of states.
• Memories
Memory elements can be anything that creates a past value
available at some future time-devices that can behold a
binary value. Memory elements are typically flip-flops.
Memory output which is considered as a circuit’s “current
state” is a numerical label. The state embodies all the
information about the past needed to define the current
output.
Differences between the Combinational and
Sequential Logic Circuits