Learning Objectives

• Define the terms nutrition, diet, nutrient, essential nutrient and

phytochemical.
• Differentiate between processed and whole foods.
• Describe the use of food additives as well as organic and genetically
modified foods.
• Explain the scientific study of nutrition, including its strengths and
limitations.
• Critically evaluate nutrition sources.
Nutrients and
Non-nutrients
Nutrients
• Diet = total food a person regularly eats
• Our diet determines which nutrients we consume
• Nutrients = food substances required for our maintenance, growth and
survival
• Some nutrients are essential
• Essential nutrient = one that the body requires but that it cannot make itself
• Ex. Essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, water
• There are six categories of nutrients…
 The Macronutrients (needed in larger amounts)
Water

Carbohydrates
Energy-yielding nutrients

• Sugars, starches, fibre

• Organic (carbon-containing)
sugar starch

Lipids (fats)
• Triglycerides, fatty acids, sterols, phospholipids
• Organic triglyceride

Proteins
• Made of amino acids
• Organic amino acid
The Micronutrients (needed in smaller amounts)

Vitamins
-Fat soluble and water soluble vitamin D

-Organic

Minerals
-Chemical elements
-inorganic
Non-nutrients
• Substances found in food that are not considered nutrients

• Ex. Phytochemicals, caffeine, toxins

Phytochemicals
• Phytochemicals = plant
chemicals
• Hundreds of them
• Found in a wide variety of plants
• Responsible for their bright
colours
• May have positive health effects
Examples of Phytochemicals
• Flavonoids – give plants bright
blue, red or dark pigmentation
• Anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour,
antioxidant effects

• Carotenoids – give plants

yellow, orange, red
pigmentation
• Antioxidant effects
Toxins
• Naturally occurring substances found in plants and animals
• Can have harmful effects on body beyond a threshold of intake
• Their levels are limited in foods
• To reduce exposure throw out old/mouldy/foul-smelling food
Food Modifications
Fortification of food
• Fortified aka enriched foods -
involves the addition of
nutrients to foods by the food
manufacturer

• Can be
• mandatory ex. iodine to table
salt
• voluntary ex. Added vitamins to
breakfast cereals
Whole foods vs. Processed foods
• Most foods have some degree of processing
• Whole foods = least amount of processing, associated with reduced
disease risk
• Ultra-processed foods = higher risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular
disease, mortality
• Can use NOVA classification system to differentiate foods for degree
of processing
NOVA Group 1: Unprocessed or Minimally
Processed Foods
NOVA Group 2: Processed Culinary Ingredients
NOVA Group 3: Processed Foods
NOVA Group 4: Ultra-processed foods
Food Additives
• Substances added to food to affect taste, appearance, safety,
freshness etc.
• Must first be approved through an evidence review
• There amounts are controlled in foods
• More common in processed, ultra-processed foods
 Organic Foods
• Organic food: have minimal
synthetic/artificial inputs and are
grown, raised and harvested in a way
that preserves biodiversity
• Ex. Use of manure and crop rotation to
promote nutrient content of soil
• Contain lower amounts of pesticides
• Whether they enhance nutrition
and/or improve health is still under
investigation
Genetically Modified Food
• GMFs = foods that have undergone alterations to their DNA
• DNA can be altered through
• Selective breeding ex. Seedless grapes, broccoflower
• Use of a vector: ex. Golden rice, RoundUp Ready Soy
Genetically Modified Foods
• Do not change our DNA
• “GM foods currently available on the international market have
passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for
human health” (World Health Organization, 2014)
• Concerns/debates remain around biodiversity, allergic potential,
ethics, labelling
Why do we eat?
Sustenance: the maintenance of our bodies
and lives

• Nutrients contribute to
• Body structure
• Body function
• Energy provision
• Carbs, proteins = 4 kcal/g
• Lipids = 9 kcal/g
Enjoyment
Psychological Reasons
Diet and Health
 Gene-Diet Interactions
• Genetics can influence nutrition in a number of ways
• Ex. Genetic influences on appetite, nutrient absorption, nutrient use

• Our diet can also influence the expression of genes (ie. Whether gene
information leads to the formation of proteins)
• =epigenetics
• NOTE: diet does not change our DNA/genes!
Epigenetics Example 1: The Agouti Mouse

• Changing the diets of

pregnant mice
affected gene
expression in their
offspring
Epigenetics Example 2: The Dutch Famine
• Compared to their siblings,
people born during the Dutch
famine were more likely to
develop depression,
cardiovascular disease, type 2
diabetes, schizophrenia
Choosing a Healthy
Diet
 Balance

• Balance = consuming
nutrients and energy in
the proportions that
most promote health
 Variety

• Variety = consuming a
diversity of foods
• We are less likely to be
deficient in nutrients if we
consume a range of different
whole foods.
Moderation

• Moderation = not too

much, not too little
Nutrient Density

• Nutrient density = amount of

nutrients in a food/meal
compared to a reference
amount (ex. 100 kcal)
Study of Nutrition
The Study of Nutrition
• It is difficult to study nutrition for a number of reasons:
• People change their diet constantly
• We can’t force people to eat a certain way
• It is difficult to know for certain what people eat
• Other factors beyond nutrition also affect health
• Difficult to establish causation
• …..
• The scientific method is used to study nutrition
• Experiments and epidemiological research are the most common types of
nutrition studies
• Both use the scientific method
The Scientific Method
 Experimental Studies
• = ~ randomized control trials
• Usually involves two similar groups
• Experimental group – undergoes the experimental treatment (ex. Dietary supplement)
• Control group – does not undergo the experimental treatment; may use a placebo (ex.
Sugar pill)

• Only one factor is different between the two groups (ex. Experimental group
received the supplement)
• if there is a difference in the groups by the end (ex. Increase in perceived
alertness in experimental group), it is most likely due to the factor being tested
Experimental
Design Checklist
 Epidemiological Studies
• Aka population-based studies: look at population trends without
manipulating variables
• Ex. Do Japanese people who eat a lot of fish have a lower risk of
cardiovascular disease than Americans who do not eat a lot of fish?
• Ex. Nurses’ Health Study:
• gathered information about nurses habits, medical history etc.
• Checked in on them over time
• Questions: what factors increased risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer etc.?
Limitations of Epidemiology
• Association does not equal causation!
• Results could be for other reasons too
• People change their diet over time

• Also, our methods of determining people’s diet all have limitations…

• Impossible to for sure know what and how much people eat
There is no ideal
method for determining
what people eat
Anecdotal Evidence
• = personal testimonies drawn from
direct or indirect casual
experiences
• Not scientific, not peer-reviewed
• Be cautious with this type of
evidence
Finding Credible
Nutrition Articles
• Pubmed and Google
Scholar are search engines
for scientific articles
• The library website can
also be used to search for
reputable sources
Evaluating the Credibility of Sources
Evaluating Nutrition Sources
Nutrition Evidence Considerations
• There are still many unanswered questions
• It’s difficult to prove anything
• Human nutrition is integrative and complex
• A Western science lens in only one lens to study nutrition
Two-Eyed Seeing
• Indigenous ways of knowing (IWOK) = a lens that
can be used in addition to Western science to
understand natural phenomena
• This course uses a Western science lens
• However, in most chapters, IWOK perspectives
will also be included
• Using both of these lens can provide a more
holistic view of food and our relationship with it
Two-Eyed Seeing
Western Science Lens Indigenous Lens
• Often studies the • Often looks at food as
effects of individual a whole
nutrients on health etc. • Food is seen as a
• Food is a non-living dynamic, living entity
thing • Food is part of our
• We harvest and relationship with each
consume food for our other and the land
own benefit
Recommendations
• Consume more whole foods and less processed foods
• Practice balance, variety and moderation with food choices
• Consume foods that are higher in nutrient density
• Use the VETO technique to evaluate nutrition information for
credibility and believability.