25.

1 Generating electricity

25.2 The laws of electromagnetic induction

25 EM Induction 25.3 The Alternating Current Generator

25.4 AC Current & Power

3.7.5.4 25.5 Transformers

Multichoice Practical Questions and Answers

7407 / 7408 PHYSICS KS5

3.7.5.4 EM Induction

3.7.5.5 Alternating Currents 3.7.5.6 Transformers

Animated Science
2018
Flemings Left Han Rule recap?

 Using FBI.

 Electron is negative

 From image electron moves in

reverse to direction of current
(second finger)

 B-field is first finger

 Hence C as not elliptical!

 Cannot be D or A/B as curves Animated Science

2016
 Mr D Powell
2018
Animated Science
2018

25.1 Generating electricity – How can we

do it? – Faradays Laws!

What must happen to a conductor (or to the

magnetic field in which it is placed) for
electricity to be generated?
C
What factors would cause the
induced emf to be greater?
B

When does an emf flow?

A
EN GE Can you explain faradays law using
H ALL
C mathematics & and an EMF v time graph Animated Science
2018
Electromagnetic Induction?
1. A wire is pulled through an area of
magnetic flux density B OR a magnet
with flux density B is pushed or pulled
through a coil of wire.

2. electricity is only produced while

something is moving

3. the faster the movement, the more

‘electricity’ we get

4. Stronger B-field induces more emf.

Animated Science
2016
Basic key terms...

Magnetic Flux,  is a measure of how many magnetic

field lines are passing through an area of A m2.

The magnetic flux through an area A in a magnetic field

of flux density B is given by:  = BA Magnetic Flux is measured in
Webers, Wb
This is when B is perpendicular to A, so the normal to
the area is in the same direction as the field lines. The more field lines pass
through area A, the greater
the concentration and the
Magnetic Flux Density
stronger magnetic field.
Found by rearranging...
 = BA This is why a magnet is
B = /A strongest at its poles; there is
a high concentration of flux
So B is a measure of how many flux lines (field lines
lines) passes through each unit area (per m2).

A flux density of 1 Tesla is when an area of 1

metre squared has a flux of 1 Weber. (Wb)

Animated Science
2016
Remember line spacing is “flux density” – closer is more!

2r

NB: Formula not required – but useful Animated Science

2016
Basic key terms...
Magnetic Flux,  is a measure of how many magnetic
field lines are passing through an area of A m2.

The magnetic flux through an area A in a magnetic field

of flux density B is given by:  = BA

This is when B is perpendicular to A, so the normal to

the area is in the same direction as the field lines.

Flux Linkage is simply when you have a number of loops of wire each with “magnetic flux”
We now know that the amount of flux through one loop of wire is:  = BA

If we have a coil of wire made up of N loops of wire the total flux is given by...

N = BAN

The total amount of flux, , is called the Magnetic Flux Linkage; this is because we consider
each loop of wire to be linked with a certain amount of magnetic flux.

Flux Linkage is measured in Webers, Wb (1T = 1Wb m-2)

Animated Science
2016
Ken Campbell - Faraday's Doughnut – 25 mins
Make some notes
on these key
points....
Pb & Acid
Frogs Legs

Coil A and Coil B

Metal Ring

Liquid Mercury

Electromagnetism?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vUuTMF811qw
(3rd Video) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZrvnvAoB7E Animated Science
2016
Faraday Law - Summary

1. Faraday made his discovery of electromagnetic

induction with an experiment using two coils of
wire wound around opposite sides of a ring of
soft iron.

2. The first coil is attached to a battery.

3. The second coil contains a compass, which acts as

a galvanometer to detect current flow.
4. When the switch is closed, a current passes
through the first coil and the iron ring becomes
magnetised.
5. When the switch is first closed, the compass in
the second coil deflects momentarily and returns
immediately to its original position.
Final Ideas...
He hypothesised that a changing
magnetic field induces a current
in the second coil. The closing
and opening of the switch cause
a magnetic field to change: to
expand and collapse
respectively.

6. The deflection of the compass is an indication

that an electromotive force was induced causing
current to flow momentarily in the second coil. Animated Science
2016
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s law of induction

primary secondary
coil coil N turns

1 2 3
large rate of
change of flux

no flux flux growing large flux

no current no emf current growing large emf large current no emf

emf in secondary coil 2 The emf is large when the

rate of change of flux is large.
The N turns are in series, so
1 the emfs in each turn add up
3
time

Flux linkage N
The emf per turn is proportional to d/dt. The N turns are in series so the emfs in each turn add up.
The emf across the coil is proportional to Nd/dt. The quantity N is called the flux linkage.

Faraday’s law: emf is proportional to rate of change of flux linkage   Nd/dt

Lenz’s law: the induced emf opposes the change of flux producing it

Clearly the three images show the idea of change in “flux”  = BA
creating the largest EMF.

But, clearly the flux linkage should be applied here as there are several loops N = BAN
Animated Science
2016
Understanding Induction Textbook - Page 411

Mental Note.

Figure 5a -> Use LH rule (as it is moving charges in the

field causing motion)

Figure 5b -> Use RH rule (as it is you moving an object

to create a flow of charges and an induced EMF)

Common misconceptions:
Don’t confuse Fleming’s left-
hand rule (Topic 7.1) with
the right-hand rule (Topic
8.1).

Remembering the phrase

‘motors drive on the left’
may help to distinguish the
motor rule from the dynamo
rule. Animated Science
2016
Understanding EM Induction
Use LH rule (as it is moving charges in
Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831 at the the field causing motion)
Royal Institution, London. Faraday knew that a current passing along a wire
produces a magnetic field near the wire and he wanted to know if a magnet
could be used to produce a current.

Using a magnetic compass near a loop of wire as a detector of current, he

showed that the compass deflected whenever the magnet was moved in or out
of the wire. He used the term 'electromotive force' (emf) to describe the voltage
induced in a wire.

When a beam of electrons is directed across a magnetic field, each electron

experiences a force at right angles to its direction of motion and to the field
direction. (top image)
Use RH rule (as it is you moving an
object to create a flow of charges and an
A metal rod is a tube containing lots of free electrons. If the rod is moved across
a magnetic field, the magnetic field forces the free electrons in the rod to one
induced EMF)
end away from the other end. So one end of the rod becomes negative and the
other end positive. In this way, an emf is induced in the rod. (bottom image)

The same effect happens if the magnetic field is moved and the rod is stationary.
As long as there is relative motion between the rod and the magnetic field, an
emf is induced in the rod.

If the relative motion ceases, the induced emf becomes zero because the
magnetic field no longer exerts a force on the Hutto His in the rod.

Note that when the rod is part of a complete circuit, the electrons are forced
round the circuit. In other words, the induced emf drives a current round the
circuit and can do things like run a motor. If not it just keeps the electrons held
there until the motion stops.
Animated Science
2016
Induction with Coil and Magnet

A changing magnetic field induces a

current in a conducting wire

The magnitude of this induced electric

current depends on how fast the
magnetic field is changing.

Move the magnet faster and you get a

larger current.

Keep the magnet stationary and the No electrical link

magnetic field doesn’t change at all
and you have zero current.

Just like the faraday ring, it only

conducted as the current increased OR
decreased. So when you close or open
the switch. When running it produces
a steady electromagnet which does
not induce a PD in the secondary coil

Secondary coil Primary coil Animated Science

2016
25.1 Summary Q1

a) The magnet whilst moving will push electrons (according to Flemings

RH rule of induction) through the wire whilst the field lines are cut
through by the wire. However, as soon as the magnet is stopped or
removed so field lines are not being cut it will stop the force and thus
the current will also stop.

b) Increasing the speed or size of the magnetic field. OR length of wire in

the field.

Animated Science
2016
25.1 Summary Q2

a) As the weight moves the motor turns which causes an EMF to be induced in
the wire. The EMF causes a flow of electrons which powers the light bulb for
that period of time.

b) There would be more push on the electron for each revolution so the flow of
electrons would increase (EMF increases) the bulb would be brighter.

c) Emf  forces a current around which lights the bulb.

d) The resistance of the circuit with the bulb means that it is harder to turn.

Animated Science
2016
25.1 Summary Q3

N S

a)
i) Looking down on the situation, the rod is
dropped and the velocity is acting with the
motion down (as plan image)

ii) This means that the current must be directed

towards the East, as East is positive as
current flow is opposite of electron flow.

b) If the wire is not at 90 to the field no current

can be induced as no field lines are cut
through.
Animated Science
2016
 Make sure you use pos->neg for
current flow on second finger –
rotate hand to make field N->S

 Motion Downwards.

Animated Science
2016
D

F=BIL
F = 0.2T x 8A x 0.4m
F = 0.64N

Electrons = 0.64N / ((1x10-6m2 x 0.4m) x 8 x 1028 electrons/m3)

Force per electron = 2 x 10-23N

Animated Science
2016
 B

 B – no as Ws-2 = Js-3

 C – certainly is by units

 A - ATm – sub into the equation

and works. & F = BIL (of course!)

 D – Fd = work or WD/d = F

Animated Science
2016
 Mr D Powell
2018
Animated Science
2018

25.2 The laws of electromagnetic

induction – what are they? – Lenz’s
Law

What is magnetic flux B =

/A and magnetic flux
linkage?
C
How is the induced emf
in a coil related to the
magnetic flux linkage
B BAN or N through it?

What is Lenz’s law and

which conservation law
explains it?
A
EN GE
H ALL Can you explain why peak C is larger than A and faster?
C Animated Science
2018
Basic key terms...
Magnetic Flux,  is a measure of how many magnetic
field lines are passing through an area of A m2.

The magnetic flux through an area A in a magnetic field

of flux density B is given by:  = BA
Magnetic Flux is measured in
This is when B is perpendicular to A, so the normal to Webers, Wb
the area is in the same direction as the field lines.
The more field lines pass
Magnetic Flux Density through area A, the greater
Found by rearranging... the concentration and the
 = BA stronger magnetic field.
B = /A
This is why a magnet is
So B is a measure of how many flux lines (field strongest at its poles; there is
lines) passes through each unit area (per m2). a high concentration of field
lines.
A flux density of 1 Tesla is when an area of 1
metre squared has a flux of 1 Weber.

Animated Science
2016
Basic key terms...
Magnetic Flux,  is a measure of how many magnetic
field lines are passing through an area of A m2.

The magnetic flux through an area A in a magnetic field

of flux density B is given by:  = BA

This is when B is perpendicular to A, so the normal to

the area is in the same direction as the field lines.

Flux Linkage is simply when you have a number of loops of wire each with “magnetic flux”
We now know that the amount of flux through one loop of wire is:  = BA

If we have a coil of wire made up of N loops of wire the total flux is given by...

N = BAN

The total amount of flux, , is called the Magnetic Flux Linkage; this is because we consider
each loop of wire to be linked with a certain amount of magnetic flux.

Flux Linkage is measured in Webers, Wb

Animated Science
2016
Loop of wire and current flow?

The right hand grip rule shows that when a current flows in
a wire, it will produce a magnetic field with direction as
shown.

Permeability, also called magnetic permeability, is a

constant of proportionality that exists between current and
magnetic flux density 1.257 x 10-6 Henry per meter (Hm-1)
in free space (a vacuum)

In SI units, B is measured in teslas (symbol: T) and

correspondingly

ΦB (magnetic flux) is measured in webers (symbol: Wb) so

that a flux density of 1 Wb/m2 is 1 tesla. The SI unit of tesla
is equivalent to kg s−2 A−1

Key Point…

The formula clearly shows for a higher current flow, the 1H = kg m 2 s -2 A -2

larger the field, the larger the radius (distance from field)
the smaller the flux density is. Animated Science
2016
Lenz’s Law... Basic Version (Learn)
A Magnet inserted into a solenoid
creates a current flow which creates a
field which opposes the direction of
motion. (conservation of energy!)
Thus a N-pole inserted into a coil
creates a...
“North pole - aNticlockwise” current
flow. (see Fig 2a page 413)
Rule to learn is.....
North pole - aNticlockwise
South pole – Clockwise
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/faradays-law
When an emf (current) is generated by a
change in magnetic flux ( BA or ) according
to Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced
emf is such that it produces a current whose
magnetic field opposes the change which
produces it.
The induced magnetic field inside any loop of
wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux in
the loop constant.
Animated Science
2016
Real World Induction… Test the rule for each time....

Increasing the induced voltage...

• move the magnet faster

• use a stronger magnet
• increase the number of turns on the coil
• increase the area of the coil

Rule to learn is.....

http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/faraday -medium challenge
North pole - aNticlockwise
Animated Science
South pole – Clockwise 2016
Lenz’s Law...

Rule to learn is.....

North pole - aNticlockwise

Animated Science
South pole – Clockwise 2016
Lenz’s Law Detailed... (Complex Version – try and understand for
A*/A)
LHR force
1. Imagine a magnetic field (into the page) with a
orange wire (across the page)
I generated
2. If we pull the wire downwards (purple arrow).
We can use the RHR “Generators” to explain that
RHR pull
the “flow of current” will be towards the right.
(purple triangle).
(B = into the page)

3. However, from Flemings LHR we find that a new

“force” is created that will oppose the direction
of your downwards force. (F = BIL)

4. This has to take place or if the reverse was true

when you move the wire down the current
induced would add to your force and it would
perpetually increase.

5. Lenz’s Law always creates a current or induced

EMF to oppose the change in Magnetic Flux,  or
change in BA
Animated Science
2016
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic Flux
The relationship between changing magnetic flux and
induced electromotive force  (epsilon) is known as Flux or  = BA
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction:
So the idea is the Field (force
The magnitude of an electromagnetic force induced in a on a moving charge) across
circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the an area of space.
magnetic flux linkage that cuts across the circuit.
Or
Mathematically, Faraday's law is written as:
A measure of the quantity of
magnetism being the numb
 = - (/t) or  = - N(/t) er of magnetic lines of force
passing through an area of
Induced voltage  is determined by two factors: magnetic field.

• The amount of magnetic flux

• The rate at which the magnetic field lines cut across
the conductor

NB: The induced EMF acts as such to oppose the change

that causes it (see details on previous) slide.
Animated Science
2016
Vanes….
https://youtu.be/MV9LfrYe3yg
Here is an aluminium vane that swings
between the poles of a powerful magnet.
When pulled back and released, it comes
to rest very quickly. When slots are cut into
the vane, it swings for a long time in the
same magnetic field.

The solid vane swings in the field, and the

conductor cutting the flux lines induces
eddy currents in the plane of the vane.

Currents flow in such a direction as to

minimise change – forces act so as to slow
the motion of the vane, i.e. always act in
the opposite direction to the motion.

In the case of the slotted vane the

presence of slots limits eddy currents and
therefore the magnetic braking forces.
Animated Science
2016
Applications of Lenz’s Law

1. Lenz's law can be used to understand the concept of

stored magnetic energy in an inductor. When a source of
emf is connected across an inductor, a current starts
flowing through it. The back emf will oppose this increase
in current through the inductor. In order to establish the
flow of current, the external source of emf has to do some
work to overcome this opposition. This work can be done
by the emf stored in the inductor and it can be recovered
after removing the external source of emf from the circuit.

2. Lenz's law is also applied to electric generators. When an

current is induced in a generator, the direction of this
induced current is such that it opposes and causes
rotation of generator (as in accordance to Lenz's law) and
hence the generator requires more mechanical energy. It
also provides back emf in case of electric motors.

3. Lenz’s law is also used in electromagnetic braking and

induction cook tops where a changing magnetic field
works on the metal in the pans.

Animated Science
2016
Regenerative Braking... (Application)

This is more simple than it looks....

1. The motor drives the wheel from a DC battery.

2. When you brake the flow of current is stopped

from the battery and the motor becomes a
generator, charging the battery.

3. The recovery of energy slows you down, you also

save on brake pads!

Animated Science
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BhOEoXfxHMc 2016
Induced EMF graphs – Magnet Dropped in Coil of Wire

A rapidly changing magnetic field induces electric currents to

flow in a closed circuit. A bar magnet is dropped vertically
through a coil linked to a centre-zero galvanometer.

A graph of coil EMF against time shows that: When the first
pole(S) falls through the coil EMF increases to a level then
decreases.

When the middle of the magnet falls through the coil, the
EMF is at a minimum.

Maximum EMF is obtained when the second pole(N) falls

through the coil. This is when the rate of cutting lines of force
is highest, because the magnet is falling faster. As a result of
the velocity being greater the period of high EMF is shorter.
Rule to learn is.....
Note that because the field direction is reversed when the North pole -
poles drop through the coil, the induced current direction is aNticlockwise
also reversed. So the EMF is reversed (EMF is directly
South pole – Clockwise
proportional to current).
Animated Science
https://www.focuselearning.co.uk/s/10dk7lutk65d 2016
Real Trace…..

Animated Science
2018
 a faster moving magnet would
induce a greater EMF & would pass
through a vertical coil more rapidly
 Hence, D

D
5.2 Summary Q1
a) i)
A = 20 x 10-3m * 50x 10-3m
A = 1 x 10-3m

N = BAN = N* BA
= 15* 72mT * 1 x 10-3m2
= 1.08 x 10-3 Tm2
= 1.1mWb

ii)
s/t = v
s/v = t
t = 20mm / 10mms-1
t = 2s

iii)
 = emf = BAN/t or N*Blv
= (72mT * 1 x 10-3 *15)/2
= 0.54 x 10-3V or 0.54mV

Animated Science
2016
5.2 Summary Q1 N /mWb =0
 = 1.08/2 = - 0.54
1.1

 = 0.45

2 6 8
Time /s
EMF  /mV
/t
0.54

(magnitude only)

e = - /t

Induced voltage  is
determined by two factors:
2 6
• amount of magnetic flux Time /s
• rate at which the
magnetic field lines cut
across the conductor Animated Science
2016
Multichoice… (Correct Answer)

The magnetic flux, Ф, through a

Less steep – gives lower emf
coil varies with time, t, as shown
by the first graph.

Which one of the following

graphs, A to D, best represents
how the magnitude,  , of the
induced emf varies in this same
period of time?

 = BA

 = N*∆/∆t

Hence when change in  is

greatest (large grad) the 
should be large.

When  is constant i.e. ∆  = 0

the  is zero.
Animated Science
2016
5.2 Summary Q2

a)
A = 40 x 10-3m x 25x 10-3m
A = 1 x 10-3m

N = BAN = N* BA
= 20* 68mT * 1 x 10-3m2
= 1.36 x 10-3 Tm2
= 1.4mWb

b)  = emf = BAN/t or N*Blv

= (68mT * 1 x 10-3 *20)/60 x10-3
= 0.02266V or 23mV
Animated Science
2016
5.2 Summary Q3
a) i)
A = r2 =  * (24 x10-3m/2)2
A = 4.5238 x 10-4m2

N = BAN = N* BA
= 40* 85mT * 4.5238 x 10-4m2
= 1.538 x 10-3 Tm2
= 1.5mWb

b)
i) The flux linkage should be doubled to = 3.1mWb because each direction
creates “flux linkage” on the way in and the way out.

ii)
emf = BAN/t or N*Blv but for overall change of flux linkage in 95ms
= 3.1mWb / 95x10-3s
= 0.0323789V or 33mV

OR 1.538mWb / 47.5x10-3s = 32.37mV

Animated Science
2016
5.2 Summary Q4

A = r2 =  * (15x10-3m/ 2)2

A = 1.767 x 10-4m2

N = BAN = N* BA = N * A * kI
= 25 * 1.767 x 10-4m2 *1.2 x 10-3 T A-1 x 1.5A
= 7.951 x10-6 Tm2
= 8Wb

 = emf = BAN/t or N*Blv

= 7.951Tm2 / 0.2s
= 39.757x10-6V or 40V Animated Science
2016
Faradays Law... (Extension – worked calculations)

Animated Science
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/farlaw.html 2016
Definitions....
Term What does it mean? Units & alternate units?

Magnetic Flux
Density

Magnetic Flux

Magnetic Flux
Linkage

Lenz’s Law

Faradays Law

Induced emf

Animated Science
2016
Flux Linkage

This question required

B candidates to know that an
induced emf is proportional
to the rate of change of flux
linkage.

Almost one-third of the

candidates considered it to
be proportional to the flux
linkage, distractor A.

56% of the responses were

correct,

whilst very few chose

alternatives C or D.
 Mr D Powell
2018
Animated Science
2018

25.3 The Alternating Current Generator – how do they work?

Which two features of the

output voltage waveform
change if the coil is turned
C faster?

Why is the output alternating

and how to graphs of 
B compare to ?

Why is it preferable for practical

generators to have fixed coils and a
rotating electromagnet?
A
EN GE http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/electric
H ALL motors.html
C Animated Science
- Investigate! 2018
Faradays Law Revisited

Try out the animation on Focus Education?.....

The diagram shows an end view of a coil of

area A, rotating at a constant angular
speed ω in a uniform magnetic field B.

The axis of rotation is perpendicular to the

screen

The flux through the coil = area of the coil x

the component of the field perpendicular to
the plane of the coil.

From Faraday's law.....

induced emf = -rate of change of flux.

The maximum emf 0 = BAω therefore

equation reduces to....

or 𝜔=2 𝜋 𝑓 Animated Science

2016
Focus Animation – The Generator https://www.focuselearning.co.uk/s/45ymt8iesbvi

In real generators, it is often easier to fix

the coil and rotate the magnet - this
eliminates the slip rings.

The photo shows a small "dynamo"

designed to operate the light on a bicycle. Animated Science
2016
Alternating Generator Maths – in detail – Not required!

1. For a generator loop travelling in a circle

2. We can exchange  for 2ft is travelling in a

circle and constant speed.

3. But also  = 2f

4. But we also know that

5. But for this function of cos we can

differentiate to obtain a –sin function as
shown..

6. This would mean that the function for the

change in flux linkage per second or emf is

7. But clearly -BAN will be the maximum

induced emf so we can exchange for 0 and
simplify see p417 for details (not required)
Animated Science
2016
EMF – Figure 3 p417

Animated Science
2016
Positions & Angles....

𝑑Φ
𝜀=− 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
 =BANcos =sin(t)

0 1 0

90 0 1

180 -1 0

270 0 -1

360 1 0 Animated Science

2016
More Explanations....

As the change of flux is greatest

at these points.  = BA (mag flux)

 = - (/t) = change in flux so

the induced emf lags behind the
flux by π/2 out of phase.

It means that when the flux is

maximum (i.e., the plane of the
coil is perpendicular to the field in
this image – upright), the emf is
zero

When the flux is zero (i.e., the

plane of the coil is parallel to the
field), the emf is maximum.

Animated Science
2016
 A

Using formulae for induced e.m.f

Rearrange to second line....

(mine complex version!)
Animated Science
2016
 1. Conducting Rod of length l moves through magnetic flux
density (field strength per unit area) B at constant speed
v....

2. Distance travelled by rod is v∆t

A
3. Area of flux it cuts is l*v∆t.

4. Magnetic flux = = BA = B x lv∆t

5. Faraday law states e.m.f  = ∆/ ∆t = Blv∆t/ ∆t = Blv

e.m.f = 1x10-5T x 60m x 150ms-1
= 0.09Tm2s-1
= 0.09 Vsm-2m2s-1
= 0.09V

Animated Science
2016
Back EMF – Application of Lenz’s Law

Generator – you turn it!

We hand crank
If you rotate a coil in a magnetic field, you the generator
generate an emf and current in the coil

Motor – running on the current

If we attach an electric motor where the coil

is placed in a magnetic field and connected
to an emf, a current flows, and as a result
there is a force and the coil will rotate

Lenz's Law……the emf (and current)

generated in the coil in the motor, acts in
the opposite direction to the emf and
current causing the coil to spin…..

This emf, because it opposes the motion The motor turns

and is in the opposite direction to the but generates
applied emf, is called a back emf. the back emf

Animated Science
2016
Applications…

When something like a refrigerator or an air conditioner (anything with a motor

like a car engine) first turns on in your house, the lights often dim momentarily.

The spinning motor also acts like a generator inducing an emf which acts against
the applied voltage that's causing the motor to spin in the first place, and reduces
the overall current flowing through the coils of the motor.

At the motor's operating speed, the current reduces and is a lot less than is
required to get the motor spinning in the first place. So it almost feels like a
“resistance”

An increase or reduction of
V- “back emf” changes the
current flow

Applied pd to
motor
Animated Science
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/motorac.html 2016
Graphing Back EMF on the “counter” emf induced
Steady Applied PD
A fixed PD is applied is applied to a small DC
motor. This creates a force on the coil (FBI –

Potential Diff/V
left hand rule) which makes the motor spin.

(𝑉 − 𝜺)

s
However, as the speed or RPM of the motor

e
𝐼=

as
𝑅

re
increases (FBI – right hand rule) tells us that an

nc
-i
induced opposing current, current and emf is

ed
uc
created in the opposite direction.

nd
i
The faster the RPM is the larger the induced
emf becomes until there is little difference. Motor Speed RPM

Low Speed High Speed

The slow a motor runs the larger the difference
between the fixed PD and emf is. Load work Free/low
Friction/Air
low high
The larger the difference is between the two, Resistance
the larger the overall current flow is in the coil Current high low
and the more power a motor has.
Back EMF low high
Efficiency = Power high low

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FA1k5ie4ryc 𝑃 =𝑉𝐼 Animated Science

2016
Fridge Example

If we connect a fridge motor of resistance 6 to a fixed 120V then the initial current
flowing through the motor when it turns on will be…

but I = - Low RPM / High current / High PD Diff / High Power

Clearly as the motor is just starting it will be running at a low speed (back emf small
as slow motion) and the current draw is high so other appliances may dim as the
power supply cannot provide that much current. (Car headlight dim on starting).

Later, when the motor starts to spin really fast it now will generate the “high back
emf” of for example  = 108V and the formula changes to…

- High RPM / High PD Diff/ High current

This happens very quickly so you don’t notice it much but it is important to realise it
is taking place due to the induction of an emf opposing the direction of the current
flow in the generator.

Animated Science
2016
Induced EMF and a Motor… This question tested the
C candidates’
understanding of the
peak voltage and
frequency terms in the
equation ε = ε0 sin (2πf t)
for a coil rotating at
constant speed in a
uniform magnetic field.

Common
misapprehensions seem
to have been
that ε0 represents the
peak-to-peak voltage.
3 Phase Power.. (Extension Reading)
Three phase power transmission has become the standard for
power distribution. Three phase power generation and
distribution is advantageous over single phase power distribution.

• requires lesser amount of copper or aluminium for transferring

the same amount of power as compared to single phase power
• The size of a three phase motor is smaller than that of a single
phase motor of the same rating.
• Three phase motors are self starting as they can produce a
rotating magnetic field. The single phase motor requires a
special starting winding as it produces only a pulsating
magnetic field.
• In single phase motors, the power transferred in motors is a
function of the instantaneous current which is constantly
varying. Hence, single phase motors are more prone to
vibrations. In three phase motors, however, the power
transferred is uniform through out the cycle and hence
vibrations are greatly reduced.
• The ripple factor of rectified DC produced from three phase
power is less than the DC produced from single phase supply.
• have better power factor regulation.
• Motors above 10HP are usually three phase.
• generators are smaller in size than single phase generators as
winding phase can be more efficiently used.
Animated Science
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motor - Complex! 2016
5.3 Summary Q1

0
0.025 0.05 0.075 0.1
4

Animated Science
2016
5.3 Summary Q2 – maybe a duff question – leave out!!

0
0
0 -0
-BAN 0

cos -90 = 0 Sin -90 = -0

0 cos0 = BAN sin0 = 0
0.25f cos 90 = 0 sin 90 = 0
0.5f cos 180 =-BAN sin 180 = 0
0.75f cos270 = 0 Sin 270 = -0
Animated Science
2016
5.3 Summary Q3

N = BANcos
= 130 x 10-3T * 65 x10-3m * 38 x10-3m * 80 * cos(0)
= 26 x 10-3 Wb
= 26mWb

f = 50Hz so T = 1/50 = 0.02s

since r = 19mm, 2r – circumference
2r/T= v
v = 2 x 19 x10-3m /0.02
v = 5.969 ms-1
v = 6.0 ms-1
Animated Science
2016
5.3 Summary Q3

1. Conducting wire of length l moves through magnetic flux density (field strength per unit
area) B at constant speed v....

2. Distance travelled by wire is v∆t

3. Area of flux it cuts is lv∆t.

4. Magnetic flux = = BA = B x lv∆t

5. Faraday law states e.m.f = ∆/∆t = Blv∆t/∆t = Blv or NBlv (with turns) x 2 (two wires)

 = 2x (130x10-3T x 65x10-3m x 6ms-1 x 80)

= 8.112Tm2s-1
= 8.1 Vsm-2m2s-1
= 8.1V
Animated Science
2016
5.3 Summary Q4

• When the load is zero the back emf is small

• When the load is increased the current must increase to overcome

the back emf generated by the coil if wire moving through a field
which opposes the direction of motion.

Animated Science
2016
Lenz’s Law Detailed... (Complex Version – try and understand for
A*/A)
LHR force
1. Imagine a magnetic field (into the page) with a
orange wire (across the page)
I generated
2. If we pull the wire downwards (purple arrow).
We can use the RHR “Generators” to explain that
RHR pull
the “flow of current” will be towards the right.
(purple triangle).
(B = into the page)

3. However, from Flemings LHR we find that a new

“force” is created that will oppose the direction
of your downwards force. (F = BIL)

4. This has to take place or if the reverse was true

when you move the wire down the current
induced would add to your force and it would
perpetually increase.

5. Lenz’s Law always creates a current or induced

EMF to oppose the change in Magnetic Flux,  or
change in BA
Animated Science
2016
The magnetic flux, Ф, through a coil varies with
time, t, as shown by the first graph. Which one
of the following graphs, A to D, best represents
how the magnitude, ∈, of the induced emf
varies in this same period of time?

=BA
= - N∆ / ∆t
Hence when change in  is greatest
(large grad) the  should be large.
When  is constant the  is zero.

Animated Science
2016
 Mr D Powell
2018
Animated Science
2018

25.4 AC Current
Power

What is an alternating
current?

C
What do we mean by
the rms value of an
alternating current?
B
How can we calculate the power supplied by
an alternating current?

A
EN GE What is the DC energy equivalent of an AC energy delivery
H ALL
C Animated Science
2018
Signal Generator & Oscilloscope

A signal generator is an electrical

device which creates an AC or
alternating potential difference.
This is like you would get from the
national grid or a “generator”

The size of wave produced is the

volts and the frequency is how
often it changes… Signal size/
wave height y-axis scale
Cycles per x-axis scale
second

An oscilloscope is like a voltmeter with a

screen y-axis for size of potential difference
(V) and a time base (x-axis) or ability to
draw a line on a graph which plots points
every 1/100 or 1/1000th of a second.

Oscilloscope scales can be changed to show the picture you would

like to see like a dynamic graph in real time. Animated Science
2016
Alternating Current... A.C (Mains)

Every mains circuit has a live wire and a

neutral wire. The current through a mains
appliance alternates because the mains
supply provides an alternating potential
difference between the two wires due to
how it is generated at the power company
(coils of wire in magnetic fields)

The live wire is dangerous because its

potential (i.e. voltage) repeatedly changes
from 325V to -325V and back every cycle.

The neutral wire is earthed at the local sub-

station. (stays very close to zero)

Animated Science
2016
1 AC Problems

1) An a.c. source is connected to an

oscilloscope. The waveform of the
alternating potential difference from the
source is displayed on the oscilloscope
screen as below.

a) The Y-gain setting of the oscilloscope is

0.5 V/cm. Determine the amplitude of
the alternating potential difference.

The time-base setting of the oscilloscope is

0.02 seconds per cm. a) 0.5V/cm x 2cm = 1V

b. Show that the time for one cycle of the b) 1 cycle is 3 cm so ;

waveform is 0.06 s. 3cm x 0.02 s/cm = 0.06s

c. Calculate the frequency of the c) 1/T = f so 1/0.06s

alternating potential difference. = 16.67s-1 or 17 Hz

Animated Science
2016
2 AC Problems...

2) An a.c. source is connected to an oscilloscope. The

waveform of the alternating potential difference from
the source is displayed on the oscilloscope screen as
below.

a) The Y-gain setting of the oscilloscope is 2.0 V/cm.

Determine the amplitude of the alternating
potential difference.

The time-base setting of the oscilloscope is 0.010

seconds per cm.
a) 2V/cm x 2.5cm = 5V
b) Determine the frequency of the alternating
potential difference. b) 1 cycle is 2 cm so ;
2 x 0.01 s/cm = 0.02s
c) The a.c. supply is disconnected and a horizontal 1/T = f so 1/0.02s = 50s-1 or
flat trace across the middle of the screen is seen. 50 Hz
Sketch the trace that you would expect to see if
the a.c. supply was replaced by a battery of p.d.
3.0 V. Animated Science
2016
History of Mains (Extra background Reading)

The system of alternating current electrical generation, transmission, and distribution was
developed in the 19th century by Nikola Tesla, George Westinghouse and others.
Thomas Edison developed direct-current (DC) systems at 110 V and this was claimed to be
safer in the battles between proponents of AC and DC supply systems.

Later metal filament lamps became feasible. In 1899, the Berliner Elektrizitäts-Werke
(BEW), a Berlin electrical utility, decided to greatly increase its distribution capacity by
switching to 220 volt nominal distribution, taking advantage of the higher voltage
capability of metal filament lamps.

The company was able to offset the cost of converting the customer's equipment by the
resulting saving in distribution conductors cost. This became the model for electrical
distribution in Germany and the rest of Europe and the 220-volt system became common.
North American practice remained with voltages near 110 volts for lamps. Most lighting
and small appliances ran on 110 V, while big appliances could be connected to 240 V. This
system saved copper and was backward-compatible with existing appliances. Also, the
original plugs could be used with the revised system.

At the end of the 19th century, Westinghouse in the US decided on 60 Hz and AEG in
Germany decided on 50 Hz (the number 60 didn't fit the metric standard unit sequence
(1,2,5)), eventually leading to the world being mostly divided into two frequency camps.
Most 60 Hz systems are nominally 120 volts and most 50 Hz nominally 230 volts. Animated Science
2016
What is Alternating Current

e
 Direct currents work by electrons moving one way
from negative to positive. Whilst doing this they
transfer energy or power
e
 Alternating currents work by moving electrons
backwards and forwards. Whilst doing this they
also transfer energy or power (but in a different
way) AC Constantly
Changing current
 If we think about it a direct current is a steady
current with I the same all the time.
Convert it…
 If we think about an alternating current it changes
all the time so we cannot do the same simple
calculations. Steady DC Equivalent
Current
 However, if we could convert the AC current to a
DC current we could.....
Animated Science
2016
Modelling

Electrons move through the structure of the

other adjacent atoms in a form of drift or current.

This is an interesting motion where each electron

gains some kinetic energy from the e.m.f. Jumps
to another adjacent atom losing the kinetic
energy and then repeats the process over and
over….

Here is a simple example of how the process

might work with boron to be more simple to see.

e- e- e- e-

NB: Boron was picked due to simple structure – it is not a good conductor! Animated Science
2016
What do we mean by the root mean square value of an alternating current?

The picture shows the curve produced fromPD (V) V0 = 325

Vrms = 230 Peak
a 230V 50Hz UK mains supply.

The supply goes from ±325V to provide the

steady 230V we actually use.

The 230V is called the “RMS Voltage”. Time

20ms 40ms

If we compare the energy delivered in a cycle

the blue parts from AC Voltage are equal to Peak to
the green shaded part from Vrms. Peak

We can think of this as the same power or 1

same “heating effect”. 𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠= 𝑉 𝑜
It takes a higher AC Voltage to deliver the
√2
same power as the current is changing all the
1
time.
𝐼 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑜 NB: you are given

You can see how this formulae works by √2 these formulae

scaling down the AC voltage (or AC current) Animated Science

2016
What happens if you square the current!

The top graph shows current

I and the rms current.

The bottom graph the square

of current or I2

This allows us to summate

the function. If we try and
add up the current flow
overall you would get zero
from the top graph!

The bottom graph shows

them combined

1
𝐼 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑜
√2 Animated Science
2016
Mean Power?
The equation for RMS power or “mean
power” ends up as half the peak…

This is why… 1
𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉 𝑜
√2
1
𝐼 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑜
√2
= 812.5W

We can also say…

The example shown gives the two methods for
finding the RMS Power (or mean power) = 812.5W

Animated Science
2016
Example….
1
Vrms Direct RMS =0.707
Eqiv..... √2
1
229.81 𝑉 = ⋅325 𝑉
√2 V0 AC Peak.....

The rms value is 0.707 times the peak value, and the peak value is 1.41
times the value the voltmeter shows.

The peak value for 230 V mains is 325 V.

Animated Science
2016
So how can we calculate the power supplied by an alternating current?
Extension Maths
• The power varies according to the square of the current….
P = I V = I2R =V2/R
• In an AC circuit the Power supplied would vary according to the
formulae we know but scaled by a sine term sin(2ft).
• At peak current Io the maximum power is supplied = Io2 R
• At zero current zero power is supplied
• If we think about the idea of a “mean power”
• I2rmsR = ½ Io2 R or the direct value which gives the same
heating effect as AC version.

Key Point to remember: I2rmsR = ½ Io2 R Animated Science

2016
Thinking about charge flowed…
Extension Maths
Area = It
Q = I*t
Current I/A = 5A x 20s
= 5Cs-1 x 20s
= 100C

5A

Area

20s Time /s

𝑑𝑄
𝐼= You cannot simply integrate the function as “Q” as
𝑑𝑡 at times it is negative, you have to chunk it up!

𝑡2

𝑄=∫ 𝐼 𝑜 sin ( 2𝜋 𝑓𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
Extension

Animated Science
2016
Where does root 2 come from for rms?
Extension Maths
If you sample the current (or potential difference) at tiny
intervals of time.

Square each value, add up the squares (which are all

positive) and divide by the number of samples to find the
average square or mean square.

Then take the square root of that.

This is the 'root mean square' (rms) average value.

For example: suppose there are 8 time intervals as shown

in the diagram

• Sum of squares = 396 1

• Average of squares = 396/8 = almost 50 𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠= 𝑉 𝑜
• Square root = 7 √2
With more intervals…
rms average turns out to be 0.707 x peak value
Values 7 10 7 0 -7 -10 -7 0
Squares 49 100 49 0 49 100 49 0 Animated Science
2016
RMS Values Summary....
For AC clearly for most of the time it is less than the peak voltage, so
this is not a good measure of its real effect.

Instead we use the root mean square voltage (VRMS) which is 0.7 of the
peak voltage (Vpeak):

VRMS = 1/Sqrt(2) × Vpeak and Vpeak = sqrt(2) × VRMS

These equations also apply to current.

1
The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is 𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ =𝑉 0
the equivalent steady DC (constant) value which gives the same effect.
√2
For example a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will light with the
same brightness when connected to a steady 6V DC supply. However,
the lamp will be dimmer if connected to a 6V peak AC supply because
the RMS value of this is only 4.2V (it is equivalent to a steady 4.2V DC).

You may find it helps to think of the RMS value as a sort of average, but
please remember that it is NOT really the average! In fact the average
voltage (or current) of an AC signal is zero because the positive and
negative parts exactly cancel out! Further
Reading

Animated Science
2016
More on Measurement... Further
Reading
What do AC meters show, is it the RMS or peak voltage?

AC voltmeters and ammeters show the RMS value of the voltage or current. DC
meters also show the RMS value when connected to varying DC providing the DC is
varying quickly, if the frequency is less than about 10Hz you will see the meter
reading fluctuating instead.

What does '6V AC' really mean, is it the RMS or peak voltage?

If the peak value is meant it should be clearly stated, otherwise assume it is the
RMS value. In everyday use AC voltages (and currents) are always given as RMS
values because this allows a sensible comparison to be made with steady DC
voltages (and currents), such as from a battery.
For example a '6V AC supply' means 6V RMS, the peak voltage is 8.6V. The UK mains
supply is 230V AC, this means 230V RMS so the peak voltage of the mains is about
320V!

So what does root mean square (RMS) really mean?

First square all the values, then find the average (mean) of these square values over
a complete cycle, and find the square root of this average. That is the RMS value.
Confused? Ignore the maths (it looks more complicated than it really is), just accept
that RMS values for voltage and current are a much more useful quantity than peak
values.
Animated Science
2016
Summary Questions…

Animated Science
2016
Summary Questions…

The rms is less than

peak AC current

I2rmsR = ½ Io2 R

Prms=0.5Po

Animated Science
2016
Summary Questions…

Peak
power

Animated Science
2016
Summary Questions…

Animated Science
2016
 Mr D Powell
2018
Animated Science
2018

25.5 Transformers

What is the purpose of a

transformer?
C V p I p  Vs I s
What energy changes take place in
a transformer / ratio equations? Vp np

B Vs ns
How is the efficiency of transformers 2
improved by better design/ use of 𝑃 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠=𝐼 𝑅
efficiency equations?
A
EN GE What is an eddy current and how does a lamination
H ALL
C effect a transformer Animated Science
2018
Typical Transformer Diagram
1. The changing magnetic flux in
the iron core of a transformer will
induce an emf, not only in the
primary and secondary windings,
but also in the iron core.

2. The iron core is a good

conductor, so the field induced in
a solid iron core will be large.

3. Furthermore, the eddy currents

flow in a direction which, by
Lenz’s law, acts to weaken Vp np
(oppose) the flux created by the 
Vs ns
primary coil.

4. Consequently, the current in the
primary coil required to produce
a given B field is increased.
Always think of the idea that there are two
circuits here. No current passes between
them they are isolated from each other!
Animated Science
2016
How Transformers Work 9 mins – Video – Review…. https://youtu.be/ZjwzpoCiF8A

An alternating potential difference causes the

electrons to move backwards and forwards in
the primary coil.

This induces changing magnetic flux in the

transformer core (DONUT).

The electrons in the secondary coil of wire

experience a push or pull due to the changing
𝑉 𝑝 𝑛𝑝
magnetic flux.
=
The windings are produced in a ratio to either 𝑉 𝑠 𝑛𝑠
step-up or step-down the potential difference
on the secondary 𝑉 𝑝 𝐼 𝑝=𝑉 𝑠 𝐼 𝑠

2
𝑃 =𝐼 𝑅 Animated Science
2019
What is the National Grid

The “grid” is a system of cables which link

400kV
Power Stations to homes, businesses, industry 275kV
and other infrastructure. 220kV

Along the way it has to modify the electrical

current to make sure that as much of the
energy is delivered as possible. Something
called a “Transformer” does the modifications!

This diagram shows the main routes for 400kV,

275kV and 220kV. Remember your home uses
220V so this is very different.

275kV
25kV
230V

Step up Step down

Power station Homes
transformer transformer Animated Science
2016
GCSE Physics – Cognito Video… https://youtu.be/7RtBUEZbKmI

Task…

1. Watch this video

2. Make some notes on the key ideas?
3. Then practice using the formulae

𝑉 𝑝 𝑛𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝐼 𝑝=𝑉 𝑠 𝐼 𝑠
=
𝑉 𝑠 𝑛𝑠

Animated Science
2019
Spaced Learning Review
Question Task 1… Answer the questions on your own – write a clear
answer and number in your book. Get as far as you can in
the time you have….
Transformers 1 – GCSE Standard

Animated Science
2019
Spaced Learning Review
Answers Task 2… Mark your work in green pen, you can judge how
you did, put a clear total at the bottom and put one clear
comment on what you must improve on.
Transformers 1 – GCSE Standard

Animated Science
2019
Spaced Learning Review
Question Task 1… Answer the questions on your own – write a clear
answer and number in your book. Get as far as you can in
the time you have….
Transformers 2 – GCSE Standard

Animated Science
2019
Spaced Learning Review
Answers Task 2… Mark your work in green pen, you can judge how
you did, put a clear total at the bottom and put one clear
comment on what you must improve on.
Transformers 2 – GCSE Standard

Animated Science
2019
Exp Results… Efficiency

1.5V 2nd Bulb is

1.5V 2nd Bulb is
Dimmer Primary Secondary Dimmer (should be Primary Secondary
brighter)

N / Turns 25 10 N / Turns 10 25

PD / V 1.8 0.3 PD / V 1.7 1.1

I/A 2.48 0.22 I/A 5.51 0.29

Power / W 4.46 0.07 Power / W 9.37 0.32

Efficiency % 1 Efficiency % 3

Animated Science
2016
Transformers

These are really basic devices we can

change the voltage and current at which
the energy is transferred.

The idea of this is to save power.

The simple circuit consists of a Power

supply, two bulbs and a transformer.

The current to the lower bulb is

transferred indirectly by a magnetic field
induced in the iron loop.

The current has been transformed and

p.d. has increased and current reduced

Animated Science
http://www.practicalphysics.org/go/Experiment_349.html 2016
Transformers – Results....

The results show an ideal situation where

0.02W are lost due to heating effects

V, Potential I, Current P, Power,

1:2 Difference
(A) W
(V)

10 Turns 2 0.25 0.5

(Np)

20 Turns
4 0.12 0.48
(Ns)

P = VI = Constant
I
P  2 *V *
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer
Animated Science
http://www.practicalphysics.org/go/Experiment_349.html 2016
Eddy Currents and Lamination
Eddy currents circulate within the core in a plane normal
to the changing flux, and are responsible for resistive
heating of the core material.

Eddy current and hysteresis losses can not be eliminated

completely, but they can be greatly reduced.

Instead of having a solid iron core as the magnetic core

material of the transformer or coil, the magnetic path is
“laminated”.

These laminations are very thin strips of insulated (usually

with varnish) metal joined together to produce a solid
core.

The laminations increase the resistance of the iron-core

thereby increasing the overall resistance to the flow of the
eddy currents, so the induced eddy current power-loss in
the core is reduced.

Power in primary is VI but the Eddy current loss is Ploss= I2R

(different I)
Animated Science
2016
Eddy Currents in Copper Pipe – Magnetic Braking – Lenz’s Law https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=otu-K
V3iH_I

A neodymium strong magnet is dropped through a

copper pipe.

The copper is not magnetic. However, the magnet is

somehow “braked” or slowed down as it falls.

Faradays law tells us that as the magnetic field is moved

adjacent to the copper pipe it experiences a changing
flux and thus an induced p.d. is created to oppose the
direction of motion to that which created it.

The red lines are the magnetic flux density changing

from the falling magnet.

The blue circle shows the electrical eddy currents

created inside the copper tube. (Faraday)

The green lines show the induced magnetic fields from induced
the current flow in the copper (opposing that from the
magnet Lenz’s Law)
Rubber band, energy loss… p193

A stress vs strain plot for a rubber

band. As it is stretched (loaded),
the curve takes the upper path.

Because the rubber band is not

ideal, it delivers less force for a
given extension when relaxing
back (unloaded).

The purple shaded area represents

the elastic potential energy at
maximum extension. The
difference in area between the
loaded and unloaded case is
shown in yellow. Review Question…
If the rubber band has length 100mm, width
10mm and thickness of 1mm….
This represents the energy which is
lost to heat as the band is cycled How much heat is generated in the band as it is
between stretched and relaxed. stretched and released? (yellow area)
Animated Science
2018
Rubber band, energy loss…. 24 Sq
Answer... The area shaded yellow in the curve 5 x104 Nm-2 * 2500Jm-3
represents the energy lost to heat. We can find
the energy per grid-square:

Y-scale… 0.05Nmm-2 (1mm2 = 1x 10-6m2)

5 x 104 Nm-2 but [J =Nm or Jm-1 = N]
5 x 104 Jm-3
X-scale…
0.05

1sq Change = 2500Jm-3

If the volume of the rubber is…

0.1 * 0.01 * 0.001 = 1 x 106m3

Review Question…
If the rubber band has length 100mm,
We also have around 24 sq in the yellow area…
width 10mm and thickness of 1mm….
= 24 * 2500Jm-3 * 1 x 106m3
How much heat is generated in the band
as it is stretched and released?
= 0.06J
Animated Science
2018
 Flux Density
Hysteresis losses… Power loss from loop area.. (Harder) Wb/m2 (Tesla)

1. Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small 163 J m-3

amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within Mag Force
(Am-1)
the core. (shown by the area within the graph).

2. The energy loss is proportional to the frequency.

Small energy loss “Soft
(50Hz in UK) Mag” material 3% Si

3. The top curve shows a 'soft' magnetic material

such as iron alloyed with silicon. Its area is small
Flux Density
so it's ideal for a low loss transformer core. Wb/m2 (Tesla)

4. 3 % Si to Fe reduces the hysteresis loss at 1 tesla 250 J m-3

from about 250 to 163 J m-3. Mag Force
(Am-1)

5. The material at the bottom hand curve is 'hard'

magnetic. Its large area is commonly seen in
Larger energy loss “Hard
materials such as Alnico (an iron/ cobalt/ nickel/ Mag” material Fe/Co/Ni/Al
Alloy
aluminium alloy) used for permanent magnets

6. Winding resistance: Current flowing through the

windings causes resistive heating of the
conductors. Animated Science
2016
 Flux Density
Units…. (Serious challenge! If you have a week!) Wb/m2 (Tesla)

You can also work out the energy for the

volume from the graph but it is tricky and not Mag Force
(Am-1)
required. (but matches the other graph from
AS Physics…)
Small energy loss “Soft
Mag” material 3% Si
But…. for the area…

= T * Am-1
= kg A-1 s-2 * Am-1 (T = kg A-1 s-2 )
= kg m-1 s-2
= kgm2s-2 * m-3 (J = kgm2s-2)
= J m-3

Animated Science
2018
5.5 Summary Q1
a) The changing magnetic flux in the iron core of a
transformer will induce an emf, not only in the primary
and secondary windings, but also in the iron core as the
coils are both connected via the core.

b) P = VI Hence, current in primary will increase when the

secondary coil is connected as opposing p.d. is induced
in the secondary coil and an opposing emf. Thus energy
is delivered through the interaction of the primary
electrical circuit -> induced field -> secondary circuit. Pin
= Pout so I must increase in the primary to compensate.

Animated Science
2016
5.5 Summary Q2
a) The idea is that by changing the number of turns on
the transformer that you can alter the current and
emf induced to you can “transform” the energy to
a higher or lower voltage for different uses due to
the flux linkage “N”. Ideas of lamination, eddy
currents and soft iron core, hysteresis loss.

b) DC current has no changing emf so as the magnetic

flux is constant the emf will fall to zero. (see image
below)

Animated Science
2016
5.5 Summary Q3
Np = 120 Ns = 2400

a) Vs = 230 so...

Np/Ns = Vp/Vs
NpVs/Ns =
Vp = 120 x 230/2400
Vp =11.5V
Vp =12V (a step up transformer)

b) Vp*Ip = Vs*Is

P=VI so P/V = I 60W/230V = 0.26A (current in sec Is)

Vp = 11.5V and Vs = 230V

Vp*Ip = Vs*Is so Ip = Vs*Is / Vp

Ip = 230V * 0.26A / 11.5V = 5.2A

Assume 100% efficiency!

Animated Science
2016
5.5 Summary Q4
A) For a cable Power loss is P = I2R. Hence, if you can
reduce the current by a factor as the term is squared
the Power is reduced by a much lower factor. i.e.
Half the power is one quarter of the Powerloss.

R = 200
P = 2x106W
V = 120x103V

P=VI so P/V = I 2x106W/ 120x103V = 16.7A

P = I2 R
= (16.7A)2 x 200 
I = 52.6 x 103W

Animated Science
2016
 Mr D Powell
2018
Animated Science
2018

Multichoice Practical
Questions and Answers

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2018
25

Materials such as Al and

copper are expensive and do
not have the mechanical
strength!

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2018
 D

Δ𝜑
 Faradays law
𝜀=
Δ𝑡
 Area gives flux change
 Grad of graph is 

Animated Science
2016
 ?
C

 ......

𝜀=𝐵𝐴𝑁𝜔sin (𝜔 𝑡 )
 If speed increases then PD output
goes up.
 Also frequency of rotation increases
according to formulae as shown.
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2016
 C

 Use Transformer Equation...

 Np/Ns = Vp/Vs

 Work out the unknown PD

 Then work out input Power.

 Then efficiency

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2016
21 The magnetic flux, Ф, through a coil varies
with time, t, as shown by the first graph. Which
one of the following graphs, A to D, best
represents how the magnitude, ∈, of the
induced emf varies in this same period of time?

=BA
=N∆ / ∆t
Hence when change in  is
greatest (large grad) the 
should be large. When  is
constant i.e. ∆  = 0

the  is zero.
Animated Science
2016
 2𝜋𝑟
Eq 1

𝑇= Sub Eq2

𝑣
into 1

Or think of T  

D Also if m is bigger then

the time must be
Eq 2
longer so D!

Animated Science
2016
Use FLEM RH FBI

Animated Science
2016
B

Vp/Vs=Np/Ns
Np/Ns = x5 factor

Hence -> Vs = 50V

PD stepped up by x5 so current reduced by 5 Hence 0.1A/5 = 0.02A

Animated Science
2016
C

Animated Science
2016
 Same plane
so no
effect
C

r = mv / Bq
B
r m only correct one!

Animated Science
2016
 A

Using formulae for induced e.m.f

Rearrange to second line....

(mine complex version!)
Animated Science
2016
 1. Conducting Rod of length l moves through magnetic flux
density (field strength per unit area) B at constant speed
v....

2. Distance travelled by rod is v∆t

A
3. Area of flux it cuts is lv∆t.

4. Magnetic flux = = BA = B x lv∆t

5. Faraday law states e.m.f = ∆/ ∆t = Blv∆t/ ∆t = Blv

6. e.m.f = 1x10-5T x 60m x 150ms-1
= 0.09Tm2s-1
= 0.09 Vsm-2m2s-1
= 0.09V

Animated Science
2016
 Capacitor of course as this
is an electric field!

D
 a faster moving magnet would
induce a greater EMF & would pass
through a vertical coil more rapidly
 Hence, D

D
A

  = BANsin(t)
 /  = BANsin(t)
 When sin(t) =1 at maximum when coil within field at 90
 /  = BANsin(t)
 / 2f = BAN = magnetic flux linkage
 C

 Two stage calc...

 1 work out output V
 Work out % eff from P = VI
21

F = BIAN

A = 0.2L2
B = 0.5 *0.5L2 = 0.25L2
C = 0.5 *0.3L2 = 0.15L2
D = 0.8*0.2L2 = 0.16L2

Animated Science
2018
22
A

A – Flems LHR - Centripetal force = Bev = mv2/r (Helmholtz coils) circular

B - Parabolic Shape due to F = eE = eV/d = ma (SUVAT.... s = ut+ 0.5at2)

C– !

D-!

Animated Science
2018
23
C

()
0.5
2𝐾𝐸
𝐹𝑥=𝐵𝑒
Flems LHR
Centripetal force = Bev = mv2/r
Sub in KE = 0.5mv2
Then divide both formulae
𝑚
Animated Science
2018
24

Use efficiency formula..

Is = P/V = 60W / 12 V = 5A

Ip = (5A x 12V / (0.75 x 230V)

= 0.347A

Animated Science
2018
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) – Extra Reading!
An iron-core transformer with movable core. A differential transformer
produces an electrical output voltage proportional to the
displacement of the core. It is used to measure motion and to sense
displacements. It is also used in measuring devices for force, pressure,
and acceleration which are based on the conversion of the measured
variable to a displacement.

Various available configurations, some translational and others

rotational, all employ the basic circuit shown in the illustration: a
primary winding, two secondary windings, and a movable core. The
primary winding is energized with alternating voltage. The two
secondary windings are connected in series opposition, so that the
transformer output is the difference of the two secondary voltages.
When the core is centred, the two secondary voltages are equal and
the transformer output is zero. This is the balance or null position.

When the core is displaced from the null point, the two secondary
voltages are no longer alike and the transformer produces an output
voltage. With proper design, the output voltage varies linearly with
core position over a small range. Motion of the core in the opposite
direction produces a similar effect with 180° phase reversal of the
alternating output voltage.
Animated Science
2016
Sensors...

Animated Science
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More examples...

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer
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2016
Generating Electricity Simple Ideas

Fleming’s right hand rule

because electricity is
N
generated.

The rod is falling

Magnetic field
vertically
downwards into
the page

W E
Current
Metal This side will become
rod positively charged.
Because the current
will flow west to east
according to Flemings
right hand rule, and
S electron flow is in the
opposite direction to
Animated Science
current. 2016
Laws Of Electromagnetic Induction Equations
Key:

• F = BIL B = Magnetic flux density

I = Current
• Nɸ = BAN (When perpendicular) L = Length
• Ɛ = -N ∆ɸ = -BAN A = Area
= BA Ɛ = EMF
∆t ∆t ∆t ɸ = Magnetic flux
• Ɛ = W = Fd = BIL∆s = BL∆s ∆s = Displacement
∆t = Change in time
Q I∆t I∆t ∆t N = Number of loops in coil
W = Work done
= BLV w = Width
• Ψ = Nɸ = BAN (When perpendicular) F = Force
d = Distance
• For a rectangular coil: Q = Charge
Time taken to enter field = coil width/coil L Ψ = Magnetic flux linkage
v
Ψ increases during this time. ∆Ψs-1 = N∆ɸ = BNLw = BN(L or w)v
∆t (w or L)/v

Animated Science
2016
Alternating Current Generator Part V - Equations

Key:
IV = I R + IƐ
2
V = Voltage
v = Velocity
Power Electrical power
Electrical power I = Current
supplied wasted due to
converted to R = Resistance
by source circuit resistance
mechanical power Ɛ = EMF
Ɛ₀ = Peak EMF
Ɛ = Ɛ₀Sin2πft = Ɛ₀Sinωt f = Frequency of rotation
T = time
Ψ = BANCosƟ = BANCos2πft A = Area of the coil
d = Width of coil
Ɵ = 2πft = ωt L = Length of coil
Ψ = Magnetic flux linkage
Ɛ₀ = 2NBLv = BANω
ω = Angular speed in radians
v = ω.r A = Ld per second

N = Number of turns in the coil

Ɵ = Angle between the field

lines and the normal to the
plane of the coil (in radians.)
Animated Science
2016