Electrical Principles for

Mechanical Engineering
Unit 428
Lecturer
Mark Clements
 Introduction - objectives

 Transformer operation.
 Transformer classification and types.
 Modelling transformers.
 Equivalent circuits.
 Open and short circuit calculations.
 Transformer ratings.

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 Introduction

 A transformer changes AC electric power at

one voltage level into AC electric power at a
different voltage level via the action of a
magnetic field.
 Two (or more) stationary electric circuits are
connected (coupled) magnetically.
 Electric energy is transferred between two
(or more) electrical systems.

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 Uses of transformers

 Voltage and current levels are changed

easily.
 Can be used to step up voltage before power
transmission or for inverters.
 Can be used to step down transmission
voltage for further distribution or utilization.

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 Transformer classification
 Windings:
– Conventional transformers – two windings.
– Autotransformers – one winding.
– Others – more then two windings.
 Phases:
– Single or three phase.
 Step-type:
– Step-up where the primary is the low voltage LV winding.
– Step-down where the primary is the high voltage HV
winding.

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 Types of transformer
 Many types exist.
 The most popular is the power transformer type.
 Available in power ratings ranging from mW to MW.
 The iron core is laminated to reduce losses due to
eddy currents.
 Laminations are insulated from each other.
 We will examine laminated core transformers
consisting of two windings interlinked by a mutual
magnetic field.

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  Laminated iron core transformer diagram.

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 Primary and secondary windings

 The primary winding is energised by

connecting it to an AC input source.
 The secondary winding supplies energy to
the electrical load.
 The mutual magnetic field transfers the
electrical energy.

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 Ideal transformers

 These are lossless devices with the following

properties:
 No iron or copper losses.
 No leakage fluxes.
 A core with infinite magnetic permeability and
infinite electrical resistivity.
 Magnetic flux is confined to the core and winding
resistances are negligible.

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 Ideal transformer properties

 In an ideal transformer with no losses the

relationship between input voltage and
current and output voltage and current is
described below:

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 Key to abbreviations

 All quantities are AC.

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 Phase angle in transformers
 We measure apparent power (S) with our meters.
 Need to use phase angle to calculate real power and
reactive power (Q).

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 Phase angle for primary and secondary

 The phase angle measured from the primary

side of the transformer is the same as the
phase angle for the secondary side of the
transformer.

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 Load impedance

 The impedance of the load can be calculated

by dividing the secondary voltage by the
secondary current.

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 Transforming load impedance

 Load impedance is on the secondary

winding.
 It is useful to be able to transfer this
impedance to the primary winding for
calculations.
 The prime (`) symbol represents the
secondary load as seen by the primary
winding and is written as Z`L.

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 Primary circuit impedance

 The load is transferred to the primary as Z`L.

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 Primary circuit impedance

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 Example 1

 A step-down transformer is designed to give

a 24 volt AC output for a 240 V AC input. The
impedance of the load ZL is 35 ohms. What is
this impedance (Z`L) transformed to the
primary?
 k = Vp / Vs = 240/24 = 10.
 k2 = 10 x 10 = 100.
 Z`L = k2ZL = 100 x 35 = 3500 W.
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 Example 2
 An ideal 100 kVA, 2400/240 V, step-down transformer
is used between a transmission line and a distribution
system. Remember: power in = power out.
1. Determine the turns ratio, k.
2. What value of secondary load impedance will cause
the transformer to be fully loaded?
3. What is the primary current with this load?
4. What is the load impedance referred to the primary?

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 Example 2 solution

1. Turns ratio k = 2400/240 = 10.

2. Is (max) = Power / Vs. = 100000 / 240 =
416.7 A. Magnitude of load impedance =
Vs / Is = 240 / 416.7 = 0.576 W.
3. Ip = Is / k = 416.7 / 10 = 41.67 A.
4. Load impedance referred to the primary
Z`L = k2 x 0.576 = 57.6 W.

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 Real transformers – losses part 1

 In real transformers there are losses due to

the primary and secondary windings having
resistance and reactance.
 These are denoted in the diagrams as Rp
and Xp in the primary windings and Rs and Xs
in the secondary windings.
 They appear in series with the current paths.

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 Transformer equivalent circuit with
winding losses only

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 Real transformers – losses part 2

 Other losses occur due to the magnetizing

branch of the transformer model.
 These are core or iron losses, Rc and
magnetizing reactance, Xm.
 The current flowing through these is known
as the magnetizing branch current, Io.
 These are placed in parallel with the primary
winding.
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 Transformer equivalent circuit

 An equivalent circuit for a transformer can

now be drawn that shows current losses due
to the core (iron) losses and the magnetizing
reactance.

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 Transformer equivalent circuit

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 Refer secondary impedances to the
primary

 Recall that secondary impedances can be

transferred to the primary side of the
transformer.
 This is done by multiplying all impedances by
k2 and redrawing them on the primary side of
the transformer and appointing these
quantities the prime (`) symbol.

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 Transformer equivalent circuit
referred to primary

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 Determining component values

 The values of the components shown in the

equivalent circuit can be experimentally
determined using two tests.
 Open-circuit test.
 Short-circuit test.

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 Open-circuit test
 This is carried out with the secondary winding of the
transformer open circuit.
 The primary winding is supplied with line (or design)
voltage.
 The series elements Rp and Xp are too small
(compared to Rc and Xm) to cause a significant
voltage drop.
 Input voltage is therefore dropped only across the
excitation branch of the transformer.

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 Open-circuit calculations

 As all the voltage drop can be attributed to

the excitation branch, the values of Xm and Rc
can now be calculated.
 The first item to calculate is the power factor,
PF = q.
 This is the ratio of real power to apparent
power.

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 Open-circuit test for PF

 Input apparent voltageoc, apparent currentoc

and real poweroc are measured.
 Open-circuit power factor can now be
calculated.
 Apparent poweroc = Apparent voltageoc x
apparent currentoc.
 PF = cos q = Real power/ apparent power =
Poc / (Voc x Ioc)
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 Calculations

 Knowledge of q allows calculation of Ic and Im.

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 Excitation branch calculations

 Ic = Io cos q so Rc = Vp / Ic
 Im = Io sin q so Xc = Vp / Im

 Now we have values for Xm and Rc.

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 Short-circuit test
 In this test the secondary winding is short-circuited.
 The voltage is adjusted until the secondary current
reaches the rated (design) current.
 Input voltagesc, currentsc (both apparent) and input
(real) powersc are measured.
 Excitation current is negligible since the input voltage
is very low.
 Voltage drop is therefore due to the series elements
of the circuit.

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 Short-circuit calculations

 As all the voltage drop can be attributed to

the total series impedances, the series
impedance can now be calculated.
 The first item to calculate is the power factor,
PF = q.
 This is the ratio of real power to apparent
power.

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 Short-circuit test for PF

 Input apparent voltagesc, apparent currentsc

and real powersc are measured.
 Short-circuit power factor can now be
calculated.
 Apparent powersc = Apparent voltagesc x
apparent currentsc.
 PF = cos q = Real power/ apparent power =
Psc / (Vsc x Isc)
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 Calculations

 For the short-circuit test, total series

impedance is Zsc.
 Zsc = Vsc / Isc
 Resistance of the transformer R is given by
dividing the short-circuit power by the short
circuit current.
 R = Psc / Isc.

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 Calculation continued

 With knowledge of the transformer’s total

resistance, its impedance can be calculated.

 We now have the copper losses of the

transformer and approximate equivalent
resistance and reactance.

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 Transformer losses

 The tests carried out show that the copper

losses of a transformer are dependant on
current.
 The iron losses of the transformer are
dependent on voltage.
 Total transformer losses are dependent on
volts and amperes, volt-ampere (VA).
 This is why transformers are rated in kVA.
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 Open-circuit testing

 Carried out to determine the no-load losses or

iron (core) losses.
 No current flows in the secondary windings so
the primary winding current is ignored.
 Current flowing (Io) is in the excitation branch of
the transformer known as the no-load current.
 No-load current is typically 2 – 10% of the rated
full-load current.

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 Open-circuit testing schematic

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 Equivalent model of open-circuit test

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 Measured values in OC test

 Primary voltage (Vp) and current (Ip) (AC) and

real power Poc consumed.
 Allows OC phase angle q to be calculated.
 q = Real power/ apparent power
= Poc / (Vp x Ip)

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 Excitation branch calculations

 Ic = Io cos q so Rc = Vp / Ic
 Im = Io sin q so Xc = Vp / Im

 Now we have values for Xm

and Rc.
 These values can be
added to the transformer
model.
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 Short-circuit testing
 Carried out to determine the copper losses at full load.
 Actually measures the equivalent impedance of the
transformer’s primary AND secondary windings
together.
 In practice the primary winding voltage is low, about 5
to 10% of the normal rated voltage.
 In this case Ic is then also small and so is ignored.
 The wattmeter therefore is mainly measuring the
winding (copper) power loss (I2R).

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 Equivalent model of short-circuit test

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 Simplifying the model

 Rp and Xp are the primary winding resistance and

reactance.
 Rs and Xs are the secondary winding resistance and
reactance.
 These can be modelled by an equivalent impedance Zeq,
composed of the series resistances (Rp and Rs) and
reactances (Xp and Xs).
 Zeq = Req plus Xeq.
 All impedance is “as seen” from the primary winding.
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 Simplified short-circuit test model

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 Measured quantities for results

 Wattmeter measures the real power loss (Psc)

due to resistance only.
 Ip and Vp are the AC primary measurements.
 All calculations are as referred to the primary
side of the transformer.
 Equivalent resistance Req = Psc / Ip2
 Equivalent impedance Zeq = Vsc / Isc

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 Further short-circuit calculations
 Now short-circuit reactance can be calculated.
 Equivalent leakage reactance (primary side) Xeq =
(Zeq2 – Req2).
 Short-circuit power factor PF = Psc / (Vp x Ip).
 Xeq and Req are now known.
 Divide by k2 to obtain low voltage (lv) equivalent
values for Xeq(lv) and Req(lv).
 These values can now be used in the equivalent
transformer model.
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 Load tests

 Testing the transformer under load conditions

allows the efficiency to be calculated.
 A resistor and a capacitor are used as the
loads on the secondary side of the
transformer.

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 Efficiency of transformer

 Real transformers have copper and core

power losses, dissipated as heat.
 These are iron (Pi) and copper (Pc) losses.
 Power output = power input – losses.
 Power input = power output + iron losses +
copper losses.

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 Notes on power losses in core

 The core loss Pi remains constant from no load

to full load as the flux in the core remains
constant.
 Copper losses Pc are dependent upon the
square of the current and the resistance of the
primary and secondary windings (I2R) .
 Thus copper losses increase as the square of
the current and iron losses remain constant
regardless of the load.
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 Terms used when calculating efficiency

 Vs – Secondary terminal voltage.

 Is – Full load secondary current.
 Cosqs – power factor of the load.
 Req(lv) – equivalent resistance referred to
secondary winding (low voltage).
 Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy
current losses.
 Pc – Full load copper losses = Is2Req(lv).
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 Calculating efficiency
 Efficiency, η = Power output / Power input.
 η = Power output / (Power output + iron losses +
copper losses).
 η = Vs Is cosqs / (Vs Is cosqs + Pi + Pc).
 cosqs = Ws / (Vs x Is).
 You will need the results of the open and short-circuit
tests to supply resistance values to allow Pi & Pc to
be calculated.

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 Copper power losses

 Pc – Full load copper losses = Is2Req(lv).

 From SC test, you have a value for Req(lv).
 My average value for Req(lv) was 0.255W.
 Current in secondary was measured in load test
as Is. (see Load test results)
 Calculate the 4 values of Pc using the formula
above.
 My results were approx 25W.
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 Iron power losses

 Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current

losses.
 Core resistance calculated in OC tests as Rc.
 Power lost Pi = Vp2 / Rc.
 My average value for Rc was 330W.
 Voltage across primary was measured in load test as
Vp. (see Load test results)
 Calculate the 4 Pi values using the formula above.
 My results were approx 330W.
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 Measuring efficiency

 In load tests, two wattmeters are used, one on

the primary (Wp), one on the secondary (Ws), so
the power dissipated can be directly measured.
 Actual efficiency, η = Wp / Ws.
 Typical results for load tests using a resistor and
a set of capacitors are shown on next slide.

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 Load test results

Capacitor Vp Vs Is Wp Ws
0 100V 47.8V 10.09A 550W 492W
150 mF 100.6V 49.4V 10.08V 560W 500W
230 mF 100.2V 50.3V 10.04V 550W 490W
310 mF 100.0V 51.4V 10.01V 532W 470W

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 Maximum efficiency

 The efficiency of a transformer will be

maximum when the copper or variable losses
are equal to iron or constant losses.
 η = Vs Is cosqs / (Vs Is cosqs + 2Pi ).

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