Things we’ll cover in this chapter

• SOCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIETY

• TYPES OF GROUPS
• STATUS AND ROLE
• SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• SOCIETY AND SOCIAL CONTROL
 INTRODUCTION
• According to Sociologist, Peter Berger, terminology is possibly very
important for sociology, because we are familiar with its subject matter and
there already exist words to denote it.
• Every discipline has a certain set of terms and corresponding concepts that
will helps in learning and understanding the discipline clearly. Terms can be a
word or phrase used to describe a thing or express a concept, especially in a
brand of study. Concepts on the other hand is an abstract idea that helps to
explain or conceptualize a term to gain better understating of the subject
matter of study.
• Terms will be universal in nature and everyone associated with the brand of
study will be familiar with it. However, concepts can be of different kinds
based on different ideas.
• Sociology as a discipline is marked by different ways of understanding
society and abrupt social changes brought due to modernisation.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS IN
SOCIOLOGY
• We need specific terms and concepts to understand our divergent
views about how and why society exists.
• The terms and concepts reflect the concern of social thinkers to
understand and map the social changes.
• It reflects the concern that sociologists had in understanding the
structured inequalities between groups and society.
• Terms and concepts acts as tool of different ways to understand society.
• Sociology as a discipline allows coexistence of concepts that leads to
divergence of views. For example, conflict theory versus the
functionalist theory. This multiplicity of approaches is particularly acute
in sociology. Or, how different thinkers explain society and its
functioning.
 SOCIAL GROUP
• Society is formed by human interaction. Humans interact, communicate and
construct social collectivities. These collectivities are referred to as social groups and
exist in every society.
• We have something in common with others in the same group, we identify with the
group, and the group can create a sense of belonging for us. However, the types of
groups that exist may differ from society to society.
• Thus, social group refers to a collection of continuously interacting persons who
share common interest, culture, values and norms within a given society.
• According to Horton and Hunt “Social groups are aggregates or categories of people
who have a consciousness of membership and of interaction”.
• A group is also different from a category. If you are in the same category as a person,
you may share similar characteristics—like age, height, or you both wear glasses, but
you may not interact or feel the sense of belonging.
• Aggregates can thus be defined as simply collections of people who are in the same
place at the same time, but share no definite connection with one another.
Passengers waiting at a railway station or airport or bus stop or a cinema audience
are examples of aggregates. Such aggregates are often termed as quasi groups.
 QUASI GROUPS
• A quasi group can be defined as an aggregate or combination,
which lacks structure or organisation, and whose members
may be unaware, or less aware, of the existence of groupings.
For example, social classes, status groups, age groups, gender
groups can be quasi groups.
• In due course of time and in specific circumstances such
aggregates might take the form of a social group as
sociologically defined. For example, people belonging to the
same caste might come together to form a caste based political
party. Such political parties will be referred to as social groups
as members will be conscious of their interaction and
belonging.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOCIAL GROUP AND
QUASI GROUP
• There is a thin line difference between quasi group
and social group. A group of people can take the
form of a quasi-group at some point and as a social
group in specific circumstances. For instance,
teenagers worrying about acne and pimples,
teenagers in metropolitan cities, etc. can be
examples of quasi groups. However, in specific
circumstances when the group of teenagers turns
out to be studying in the same class, a group of
common friends, etc., it becomes social groups.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL GROUPS
• A social group refers to a collection of continuously interacting
persons who share common interests ,culture, values, and norms
within a given society.
• A social group can be said to have at least the following characteristics:
• persistent interaction to provide continuity;
• a stable pattern of these inter- actions;
• a sense of belonging to identify with other members, i.e. each
individual is conscious of the group itself and its own set of rules, rituals
and symbols;
• Shared interest
• acceptance of common norms and values
• a definable structure
 TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
• Different sociologists have classified social groups
differently. In their classifications they take different
criterion into account.
• Primary and secondary group
• Community and society or association
• In- groups and out- groups
• Reference group
• Peer groups
Difference between Primary and Secondary groups
Primary Group and Secondary Group on basis of size/type of relationship
It is the most well known classification given by Cooley on the basis of size and
type of relationship shared among its members.

Primary Group Secondary Group

1. Secondary group is relatively large in

1. Primary group is small of people.
size.

2. It is characterized by intimate, face to 2. It is marked by formal, and

face, and emotional relationships. impersonal relationships.

3. For example, Club, Residents Welfare

3. For example, family and peer group
Association,schools,workplace,etc.
community
Association or society
Reference group
 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• Social stratification can thus be defined as the existence of
structured inequalities between groups in society, in terms of
their access to material or symbolic rewards. Ogburn and
Nimkoff defines social stratification as “The process by which
individuals and groups are ranked in more or less enduring
hierarchy of status is known as stratification”.
• Society can be seen as consisting of ‘strata’ in a hierarchy, with
the more favoured at the top and the less privileged near the
bottom. Stratification has a crucial place in the organisation of
society. Every aspect of the life of every individual and
household is affected by stratification. Opportunities for health,
security, educational success, fulfilment in work and political
influence are all unequally distributed in systematic ways.
 FORMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

• Historically four basic system of stratification

have existed in human society
• Slavery
• Caste
• Estate
• class
 SLAVERY
• Slavery is the extreme form of inequality in which some
individuals are literary owned by others.
• The Greeks and Romans kept slaves as soldiers, servants,
labourers and even civil servants. The Romans captured
slaves from present day Britain, France and Germany.
• Slave armies were kept by the Ottomans (Turks)and
Egyptians. As a formal institution slavery has at present
been eradicated.
• However, there are still instances of its existence found
in numerous forms in many corner of the world.
 Cont…
• The term ‘slave’ is used to denote “a man whom
law and/or custom regards as the property of
another”. Slaves are in lower condition and have
no political rights. The legal condi­tions of slave
ownership have varied considerably between
different societies. Slavery is an extreme form of
inequality. Its basis is economic. It has existed
almost in all agrarian societies where slaves
become an asset in production.
CASTE AS A SYSTEM OF STRATIFICATION
1. Your social position is determined by the caste you are born in . You
cannot change your caste.

2. Caste dictates the type of work an individual can do and doesn’t allow
occupational mobility.

3. Caste endogamy is practiced with regard to marriages. An individual

can marry only within his/her own caste.

4. Caste determines one’s social relationship. Social interaction is

restricted by caste.

5. There is restriction in terms of food and food sharing.

 Caste system
• The Indian caste system provides an example of a
peculiar type of social stratification based on ascription.
It is a system of inherited inequality as the guiding
principle in social relationships. A caste may be defined
as an endogamous group whose members follow by
tradition a single occupation, or certain cognate
occupations and who are held together by definite social
rules of behaviour, and by common ceremonial or ritual
observances. The system of caste is based on the
assumption that each person is preordained a place and
occupation in society at birth.
 Estates:
• Estates were categories in feudal systems, especially in Europe during
middle ages. They were less rigid than castes and allowed some
mobility. In an estate system men are assigned to their strata
according to their birth, military strength and landholdings. Unlike
castes, estates were created politically by man-made laws rather than
religious rules. Each estate had its own code of appropriate behavior.
• The normal divisions were three-fold:
• (a) The nobility [the first (highest) estate], which was composed of
aristocracy and gentry;
• b) The clergy (the second estate), which had lower status but
possessing various distinctive privileges; and
• (c) The commoners, which include everyone else from peasants to
artisans.
• In an estate system, the people of various strata were identified by the
rights they had and the duties they were expected to perform.
 Social class

• The above three systems of stratification—

slavery, estate and caste system—are mainly
associated with agrarian societies. In the
modern industrial societies, where machine
energy has replaced human and animal energy
as the primary source of economic
production, an entirely new set of social
stratification has developed, which is known
as social classes.
 CLASS AS A SYSTEM OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

• Class system is different from the other forms of stratification in

four main aspects.
• The boundaries between class groups is not as clear cut as in
the caste system.
• The class system is a system of stratification of society on the
basis of education, property, business/work etc
• Sociology as a subject deals with the Class System and provides
definitions and understanding of the subject of class in society.

Karl Max - 'Man is a class animal' i.e. his status age, education
etc are not same in the society.
 CLASS AS A SYSTEM OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

• Class system is different from the other forms of

stratification in four main aspects.
• 1. The boundaries between class groups is not as clear
cut as in the caste system.
• 2. Class status can be achieved and is not ascribed.
• 3. The class stratification is mainly based on
inequalities with regard to possession of economic
resources.
• 4. The process of inequality operates through large
scale impersonal association of the members.
 Caste system vs class system
• In traditional caste system social hiearchy is
fixed ,rigid and transmitted across
generations. Modern class system in contrast
is open and achievement based. In democratic
societies there is nothing legal to stop a
person from the most deprived class and caste
from reaching the highest position.
Social mobility
b
vertical mobility
 STATUS AND ROLE

• Status: It is refers to the position an individual occupies in a group or

in society. Each status has certain defined rights and duties assigned
to it. Examples of status- Doctor, mother, teacher etc.
• Role :Role is a part played by someone in a particular situation.
Example a teacher plays the role of facilitator, guide, mentor, etc. An
individual can play different role in different context.
• A role is the dynamic or the behavioral aspect of status.
• Status is occupied but roles are played.
• Status in an institutionalized (a typical practice )role.
• It is a role that has become regularized, standardized and formalized
in the society at large or in any of the specific associations of
society.
Achieved status
 Status sequence
• Status sequence : It refers to the status, which
is attained in succession or sequence .This is
called a status sequence for it refers to
the status, which is attained in succession
or sequence at various stages of
life…,career…,etc.
 Status and prestige
• Status and prestige are interconnected terms.
• Every status is accorded certain rights and values.
• Values are attached to the social position, rather than
to the person who occupies it or to his/her
performance or to his/her actions.
• The kind of value attached to the status or to the
office is called prestige.
• The prestige of a doctor may be high in comparison to a
businessman ,even if the doctor may earn less
( prestige attach to one’s occupation )
 Role set

• Robert K Merton introduced the term Role set to identify

number of roles attached to a single status.
• A role set is a situation where a single status has more
than one role attached to it.
• According to Linton a person holds a status and performs a
role. Roles do not exist by themselves in isolation from one
another; each role has its complementary or associated
role or roles.
• Any given social status involves an individual actor in a
number of social relationships that are always or usually
found to be necessary for persons in that particular status.
 Role playing
• The acting out or performance of a particular
role, either consciously (as a technique in
psychotherapy or training) or unconsciously, in
accordance with the perceived expectations of
society with regard to a person's behavior in a
particular context.
• E.g. Role played by an actor ,when we play our
natural role in our daily life……
 Role stereotype
• a Role -stereotype is an over-generalized belief about a
particular category of people. It is an expectation that people
might have about every person of a particular group. The
type of expectation can vary; it can be, for example, an
expectation about the group's personality, preferences, or
ability.
• It is a process of reinforcing some specific role for some
members of society.
• For e.g. men and women are often socialized in stereotypical
roles, as breadwinner and home maker respectively.
 SOCIAL CONTROL
• Social control refers to the various means used by
a society to bring its recalcitrant(uncooperative)
or unruly members back into line. It is the social
process, techniques and strategies by which the
behaviors of individuals or a group are regulated.
• It can be the use of force to regulate the behavior
of the individuals or enforcement of values in the
individual to maintain order in society.
Functionalist view of social control
• Functionalist sociologists understood society as
essentially harmonious and conflict theorists saw
society as essentially unequal, unjust and exploitative.
• For functionalists perspective social control refers to
I. The use of force to regulate the behavior of individuals
and groups
II. Enforcing of values and patterns for maintaining order
in society.
• Social control is seen as necessary for the stability in
society.
 MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

• Social control may be informal or formal.

• FORMAL MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL
• When the codified, systematic and other formal mechanism of control is used, it is
known as formal social control. There are agencies and mechanism of formal social
control, for example, law and the state. In a modern society formal mechanisms
and agencies of social control are emphasised.
• INFORMAL MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL
• In every society there is another type of social control that is known as informal
social control. It is personal, unofficial and uncodified. They include smiles, making
faces, body language, frowns, criticism, ridicule, laughter etc. There can be great
variations in their use within the same society. In day- to-day life they are quite
effective. However, in some cases informal methods of social control may not be
adequate in enforcing conformity or obedience.
• There are various agencies of informal social control such as family, religion,
kinship, etc.
 IMPACT OF SOCIAL CONTROL

• Social control can be both positive and negative through sanctions.

• A sanction is a mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially expected
forms of behaviour. Members of societies can be rewarded for good and expected
behaviour. On the other hand, negative sanctions are also used to enforce rules and
to restrain deviance.

• DEVIANCE
• Deviance refers to modes of action, which do not conform to the norms or values
held by most of the members of a group or society. What is regarded as ‘deviant’ is
as widely variable as the norms and values that distinguish different cultures and
subcultures. Likewise, ideas of deviance are challenged and change from one
period to another.

• For example, a woman choosing to become an astronaut may be considered

deviant at one time, and be applauded at another time even in the same society.