1A Changes in the political landscape

Decline of the Liberal Party Rise of the Labour Party

Development of the party in interwar politics:
Factors in the party’s fall: -
1918 ‘Coupon Election’: 1918 General Election the party had 57 seats. This increased to 142 seats in the 1922 election; they were in government by 1924.
1. Collapse of party unity - -
1918 Election was contested by 2 liberal parties – the one who In December 1923: LAB and LIB form a coalition; 191-158 seats.
2. Impact of the Representation of the People Act -
supported Lloyd George and the other who supported Asquith. CON win 1924 election, after accusations the Labour party are Soviet sympathisers.
3. Impact of the 1918 General Election - -
DLG made a coalition with the conservatives – who were Labor won 287 seats in the 1929 General Election and forms a minority government which lasted 2 years.
4. Failure of Lloyd George after 1922
desperate for office after an absence of 18 years. They
supported DLG, a popular figure after the war, who did not Labour in 1918:
First World War & party unity: -
have enough Liberals to support him. Formed in 1900; youngest party in Britain
- Liberals implemented the Defence of the Realm Act (1914) which - -
Candidates who stood for the coalition were issued with a Was formed from the Labour Representation Committee of the TUC and therefore was closely tied to the unions.
gave the government powers, e.g. economic controls, conscription -
‘coupon’ saying such. Working Class representation was made easier in 1911, when a law passed allowing MPs to take a wage.
and rationing. - -
Coalition won in a landslide: CON 335 seats, DLG Liberals Labour’s rise was made easier by the ROPA which tripled the size of the electorate – including nearly all working class men.
- These measures were opposed by many in the party, they were -
133 seats, and the Asquith Liberals won only 28 seats, with Wartime saw a huge increase in Trade Union membership. Between 1915 and 1918 membership went from 4.3m to 8.3m – this was the heart of Labour
seen as ‘illiberal measures’
Asquith loosing his own. support.
- However, DORA was supported by leading and popular liberal,
David Lloyd George, whom managed to oust Hebert Asquith as
Damage to the Liberals in 1922: Factors in the Party’s development:
Prime Minister in 1916.
Cash for honours scandal - 1. Preserved party unity
- Split solidified of Maurice Debate – General Maurice wrote a public - emerged saying DLG was selling knighthoods and peerages 2. Grassroots
letter accusing Lloyd George of lying to Parliament about how
amassing a huge political fortune – a knighthood could be 3. Independence from the Liberal Party
many troops were on the Western Front. When the issue was
bought fro £10,000.
debated in Parliament, Asquith criticised Lloyd George and - Refused to share this sum with the Liberals unless they Party Unity:
demanded an inquiry.
followed his ideas. - Formed from the TUC, giving the party a distinct working class identity; loyalty from the working man.
- Asquith led an attempt to oust Lloyd George, but this failed. - Scandal did damage to his credibility; portrayed as a crook. - Strong divisions over whether to support the war effort. This division was healed when in 1917 Labour Ministers resigned from the wartime coalition.
- Effective leadership of Arthur Henderson: able to reflect a consensus view of the Labour movement; the first labour leader to gain representation at cabinet
Impact of the Representation of the People Act:
Chanak Incident – level.
- Seen as a warmonger, after threatening Turkey if it sought to
Act’s damage Limited damage to party
revise the terms of the peace treaty in the Chanak Incident. Organisation of the Labour Party:
- ROPA expanded electorate - Working class vote dud not - Thanks to union backing, the party was able to run a national political machine.
by 13 million, including increase to the extent where Events led to the Tories abandoning the coalition; forcing Lloyd - In 1917, the party began to develop local party branches and by 1924, only 19 constituencies did not have a local Labour branch.
working class men and it could have been the only
George to resign. The 1922 election saw the Tories with a healthy
(some) women. factor in the decline of such
- Working class composed a number of liberal seats. majority. The Liberals had slipped into third place with Labour
80% of the electorate - Liberals failed to challenge emerging in second. Changes to the voting system:
- Labour, unlike the Liberals, the development of the - ROPA: did expand the size of the electorate, but the extent to which these votes swayed towards Labour, still remains unclear.
could adapt to the new FPTP system and this only -
1922 General Election: 1918 Election was heavily influenced by patriotism. Those Labour politicians who took a popular, anti-German platform won handsomely. However, pacifist
areas of the electorate. damaged them into the
- Between 1910 and 1923, 1930s.
- Liberals lacked the funds to run an effective campaign Labour candidates were heavily defeated.
Labour went from having - Share of the vote fell to 12% by 1924 – lost faith among their - Internal organisation allowed more Labour candidates to stand for election: not only boosted Labour’s chances of winning seats but conveyed the party as a
7.1% share of the vote to traditional voting base. national political force.
30.5%. Meanwhile the - ‘Yellow book’ policies never attracted support from the
Liberals decli9ned from
43.9% to 29.6% - evidence electorate. Labour breaking away from Liberal influence:
that the new influx of voter - FPTP further limited their ability to gain seats, as it favoured a - Before 1914, there were close links between the Liberal and Labour parties; both left-wing parties.
led to a rise in Labour’s two party race. - After 1914, Labour began to establish a separate identity by promoting free trade, social reform and internationalism.
power. - Labour drew up a new constitution in 1918, tying itself to the nationalisation of key industries.
- This led to a more ruthless approach in General Elections, as Labour tried to forge a new identity.
- 1923 Election: LAB capitalised on the splits in the Liberals and was able to sweep up much of their support.

Conservative Dominance The National Government

Overview: -
- Factors in the formation of the National Government:
Tories withdrew from the DLG coalition and won a healthy majority in 1922
Election.
- 2.
In December 1923, the conservatives lose the election, but remain the largest
parliamentary party with 258 seats.
- -
Conservatives win the 1924 election with a healthy majority
- Tories lose the 1929 election, although no party has an overall majority
- -
Agree to participate in the National Government and become the dominant force
in British politics from 1931 to 1945.
Factors for the party’s dominance:
1. Electoral system
2. Weakness of opposition parties
3. Effective party organisation
4. Effective leadership and image
How did changes in the electoral system help the conservatives?
- Plural voting: This meant a businessman who owned property in one
constituency and lived in another could vote in both. It also meant someone
could vote in their university constituency and their home constituency. Both
businessmen and under/graduates tended to vote conservative.
- Redrawing of constituency boundaries: In 1918 these boundaries were redrawn
to reflect population changes. This change gave middle class suburbs greater
representation – again, these people tended to vote conservative.
- Unevenness of the FPTP system: It was calculated in 1918 that it took 16,000
votes to return a Tory MP, where as it took 30,000 for a Labour MP and 26,000
for a Liberal.
- Irish Free State: Irish independence led to the Liberals losing the support of
around 80 nationalist MPs, where as the Tories continued to receive support
from around 10 Northern Irish MPs.
Divisions within the opposition parties:
- 1. Outcome of the 1929 General Election
By 1931, many of the right-wing Liberals had split from the official party
Weakness of the minority Labour Government
forming the National Liberals who would eventually merge with the
3. Economic problems caused by the Great Depression
Conservatives.
4. Role of Ramsay MacDonald
Labour found it difficult to establish themselves outside the traditional
industrial heartlands.
1929 General Election:
In 1931, the labour government was deeply divided over how to handle
- Whilst the Tories won the greatest share of the vote (38.2%), Labour won the most seats (287 to the Tories 260).
the economic crisis and were decimated in the 1931 General Election.
- Labour returned to power under Ramsay MacDonald, supported by 59 Liberal MPs.
Conservative's Organisation:
- 1929-31 Labour Government:
‘Party of property’ funding was not a problem.
- Labour had been in power only once before, in 1924.
- Developed a true national party structure – local branches and a
- Had to make harsh economic decisions, which effected the poor.
network of professional agents.
- Dependent on Liberal support which blunted its radical programme of welfare provision.
- Internal organisation was also developed with the Conservative
- Labour quickly lost support and was forced to call a general election.
Research Department, being created in 1929 which was responsible for
research, drafting speeches and preparing party documents, e.g.
Significance of the 1931 Budget:
election manifestos.
- By 1931, Labour was struggling to meet its spending commitments, particularly on welfare reforms.
- Britain needed loans from the US and France – however, international bankers demanded a balanced budget in return for the loans
The Party’s image:
- - Government put together plans to raise taxes and cut spending to meet the commitment; these included a cut to unemployment benefit
Rebranding of the party: began in the 1870s. Moved away from wealth
by 10%, which was keenly supported by MacDonald and his Chancellor, Philip Snowden.
to ‘one nation conservatism’ – promoted empire, patriotism and national
- These proposals split the Labour Party and on August 24th 1931, resigned as the party of government and moved to expel MacDonald
defence. Attracted support from the uncommitted working class voter.
- and Snowden.
Stanley Baldwin: effective and popular leader, a ‘man of the people’.
Although he owned a fortune in the steel industry, Baldwin was known
MacDonald & The National Government:
to run factories fairly and promoted a good working relationship
- MacDonald was keen to resign as Prime Minister but King George V and the Conservative Party wanted him to continue.
between employer and employee.
- - King George V appealed to MacDonald’s patriotic duty whilst the conservatives were happy to allow MacDonald to continue believing he
Gained a reputation for economic competence.
- would bare the brunt of any unpopular economic measures.
In 1922 he supported free trade, taking away the policy that united
- As a result, MacDonald announced he would continue as Prime Minister leading a ‘national government’ to face the emergency.
Liberals, before returning to protectionism in 1924.
1A Changes in the political landscape
The National Government (Continued) The Rise of Consensus Politics (1945-79)

1931 General Election: The post-war consensus can be characterised as a belief in: ‘13 Golden Years’ ‘13 Wasted years’

Churchill, Eden & Macmillan

- MacDonald called for an election in October 1931. He was worried that 1. Keynesian economics
2. A mixed economy  Huge achievements in education  Rival nations sent more people to
this would split the Labour party – some had joined him to serve as  Leading member of the UN and NATO university
part of the National Government while the rest had formed a seperate 3. Nationalisation of major industry by 1964  Economic growth low compared with
4. The National Health Service  1950s: Nearly 3& growth per annum rival nations
Labour Party led by George Lansbury.  Consumer spending rose by 45%  Productivity was the lowest in Western
- 5. Commitment to full employment
The Liberals were also similarly split.  Unemployment was below 2% for most Europe
6. A welfare state in Britain; social security and national insurance
- The outcome of the 1931 General Election was an overwhelming of the period  Application to join the EEC is vetoed
7. Introduction of nuclear weapons  Wages rose by 72%  Lack of investment in manufacturing
victory for the National Government winning 554 seats with the  Subsidies for British farming  Debate over grammar schools is not
conservatives holding 473 of them. WW2 - Setting the stage for consensus: resolved.
- Labour did extremely badly in the elections – winning just 52 seats. - The National Government, proved the ministers from rival parties could work together and that a broad agreement on key policies could be reached.
- Success of collectivism: an approach where certain problems are tackled by taking away some rights for the common good.
Challenges faced by the leaders of the National Government: - The war changed the role of government: Emergency Powers Act, for example
1. Economic threats – aftermath of the Great Depression - Shift from a free market economy to a more mixed one where government used rationing, conscription and censorship, all in a bid to engage Britain in a total war. 1/3 of citizens were taking in war related work.
2. Opposition - Beveridge Report, 1942: Outlined his vision for a welfare state that could care from someone from ‘cradle to grave’; the report sold 635,000 copies. Labour’s pledge to implement the report was a huge factor in them winning the election of 1945.
3. Rise of extreme politics
4. Foreign Policy threats Why did Labour win a landslide in the 1945 General Election?
- Leadership: Atlee was seen a ‘man of the people’. Although, Churchill led the nation through WW2, there was concern over whether he could lead the nation during peacetime. Atlee had led the Home Front during the War and showed himself as a
capable leader.
Leaders of the National Government: - Campaigns: Labour broke off the wartime coalition after the war, to force a General Election. Churchill was confident in winning the campaign ‘let’s finish the job’ election slogan.
- Policies: Labour promised to implement the policies of the highly popular Beveridge Report, in comparison the Conservatives did not have a clear post-war agenda.
MacDonald - 1931: MacDonald and his Chancellor, Philip Snowden press - Public Mood: the public were desperate for change after nearly six years of war; they associated the Tories with the high unemployment of the 1920s and 30s.
ahead with spending cuts
- MacDonald’s health begins to fail, Baldwin effectively takes Prime Ministers during the consensus period:
over from 1931

OVERVIEW: TIME IN OFFICE CONTINUITY CHANGE

Baldwin - 1935: Baldwin’s plan to appease fascist Italy by giving
Mussolini 2/3 of Abyssinia was hugely unpopular when
leaked to the press
- Nazi Germany: some wanted rapid rearmament, o0thers
wanted disarmament and cooperation with the league of
nations to avoid war.
- 1935 Baldwin offers a compromise: increased spending on
Atlee
 1944 Education Act: introduces universal secondary education, split into three parts Grammar, Modern and Technical schools. It also created a  Greater government intervention
government minister for Education, 900 primary schools were built and 250 secondary schools.
 1945 Family Allowance Act: gave money to support those with children Why did Labour lose the 1951 election?
 1946 National Insurance Act: paid for through taxes, government provides support in case of sickness, unemployment, retirement & widow etc.
 Taxation at a standard rate of 45% seemed too high for many
 1946 National Health Service Act: gave healthcare to all paid for through taxes (allowed creation of the NHS in 1948) The 1945-51 Labour government,

rearmament to fulfil any military requests from the league.
- 1936 Abdication crisis: Baldwin advises King Edward VIII to
abdicate so he can marry Wallace Simpson, a divorcee,
Baldwin is praised for his handling of the crisis.
 Dissatisfaction with rationing
 Industrial Injuries Act: Provided cover accidents in the workplace begins the period of consensus  Conservatives were seen as united where as Labour were seen
 Nationalisation: Coal, Steel, iron and the railways were all brought under State control as divided on many issues, for instance nuclear weapons and
 Housing: By 1951, 1 million good quality council homes were constructed the Korean War
 Abolished means testing.  1947 Industrial Charter showed the Conservatives were willing
to adapt and adopt consensus policies.

Chamberlin - Attempts to find ‘peace in our time’ hugely popular with the
Churchill, Eden & Macmillan

British people.  Housing: Made good on their commitment to construct 300,000 homes by 1953 (327,000 were built; 354,000 by 1954)/ Mortgages were made  Fund and improve the NHS  ‘Stop-go’ economic policies  led to inflation
- 1938: flew three times to meet Hitler more readily available /Housing subsidy increased from £25 to £35.  Keynesian style economics  Under Macmillan, the Chancellor, Treasury Minister and
- Once war begins he is forced out of Parliament by a vote of  Iron and steel were largely denationalised in 1953  Welfare expenditure continued Financial Secretary all resign because they fear the
no confidence.
 Wartime rationing ended in 1954 to grow, in real terms. (19.3% government is spending too much.
 Health: 1959 Mental Health Act: modernised treatment to be humane/ 1962: plans were unveiled for 90 new hospitals to be constructed over of GDP in 1964, up from  Reversed nationalisation of steel and iron (with the
the following decade. 16.1% of GDP in 1951) support of the people)
 Education: pledged that 6000 new schools would be built/ 1963 Robins Report stressed a need for more universities, so 7 more were  ‘Butskellism’ described the
Churchill - Had long been a critic of appeasement and an opponent of constructed/ 10 Technical Colleges (for further education) were established. almost identical economic
Hitler policies of the two parties
- Set up a war cabinet of just 5 men to make quick decisions
- Creates new ministries, e.g. Ministry for Aircraft Production
- Emergency Powers Act (May 1940): gave wide-ranging
powers to the British Government
- An essential wartime leader, Churchill maintained public
moral with inspirational speeches.  Investment in social and scientific progress  Ambitious plans to invest in  Policies of full employment are under strain
 Department of Economic Affairs: put together the ‘Nation Plan’ to grown= the economy in 1965, but the plan had few ideas on how to technology show a desire for  Economic problems: Wilson forced to devalue the
increase productivity, also the Treasury resented competing with the DEA and would not work with them. consensus pound in 1967, loosing him great credibility ($2.80 
Harold Wilson

 Ministry of Technology: Stifled by lack of funds, encouraged British markets to compete in world trade; supported ambitious projects such as $2.40)
Concorde (1968) and nuclear energy  900,000 unemployed by 1964
 New universities and polytechnics built  3.6 million days lost to strike action
 Open University created  Recession and inflation caused by ‘stop-go’ policies
The failure of extremism 

Liberal Reforms: 1965 Race Relations Act, 1967 Abortion Act, Gay sex made legal, 1969 death penalty is abolished, 1970 Equal Pay Act
Late 1960s Britain had a budget surplus
 Liberal reforms were also a break from the continuity of
past governments.
 Dropping of the ‘National Plan’ in 1967
British Union of Fascists:
- Oswald Mosley forms the BUF in 1932 with the aim of emulating
Mussolini style leadership  Cut taxes and spending  moved toward a more free market approach to the economy  Britain finally joins the EEC  Cut to government funding given to councils, led to
-  1971 Industrial Relations Act: decreased power of the Trade Unions (unpopular with the TUC) councils increasing rents on social housing.
BUF was racist and anti-Semitic  1973: Britain joins the EEC  Stopped giving free milk to children. Education
- Party founded by Mosley himself and some wealthy aristocrats  1971 Budget: Cuts in income tax and government spending Secretary, Margaret Thatcher was branded ‘Thatcher
Edward Heath

- 50,000 members in the 1930s  Unemployment had risen to 1 million by 1972 and Heath conducted a U-turn in government policy and returned to increasing government the Milk Snatcher’ – these were serious cuts to the
- October, 1936: ‘Battle of Cable Street’: BUF march through East controls in prices and incomes and interference in industrial relations. welfare state.
 £2.5 billion pumped into the economy for pensions, benefits and tax reductions.  Three day week
London (home to many Jews and Irish immigrants) turned into a  1973 Oil Crisis badly affected the British Economy  A return to the nationalisation of some industries.
violent clash.  Miner’s Strike, 1974: forced Heath to implement a 3 day work week and eventually gives in to the strikers demands.
- WW2 made BUF even more unpopular; Mosley was imprisoned for
three years until 1943 and the BUF was banned.

The Communist Party of Great Britain Economic problems:  Increase in Liberal support – 20% vote Liberal in 1974,
1. 1973 Oil Crisis – after oil prices rose by 70% in 1973, inflation increased to 20%. they also have some influence in government.
- Far left, more successful than Mosley
Wilson & Callaghan

2. Britain was dubbed ‘the sick man of Europe’  Labour supports the EEC
- CPGB gained one MP in 1924 and in 1935 3. 1975 Chancellor Heady abandoned commitment to full employment (a key consensus policy) and embraced monetarism  IMF crisis changes Britain’s economic policy (move from
- However, only gained a maximum of 0.4% of the popular vote; British 4. Pound devalued, reaching a record low against the dollar in June 1976 full employment to control of inflation)
electorate rejected communism 5. 1976 IMF loan: Britain was forced to take out £4 billion loan from the IMF to cope with the economic crisis. In return for the loan, Britain made  Unemployment rose to 1.8 million in 1978
- huge cuts in government expenditure and the budget deficit  effects: pound appreciated and the economy improved).  Election of Margaret Thatcher – post-war consensus
Strength of Labour prevented Communism from taking off Trade Union problems: ends
- CPGB used ‘entryism’ – tried to infiltrate the Labour Party and steer 6. Winter of Discontent: after a wage freeze (condition of the IMF loan) public service workers went on strike. Staff walked out of children hospitals
their ideas to the left (Labour banned CPGB members from joining and corpses went unburied.
Labour to prevent this). 7. British tabloids exaggerated the crisis leading to public opinion turning against Labour and the Trade Unions.
- They gain some support until Russia helps to defeat Nazi Germany.
1B Changes in the economic landscape
1920s 1930s 1950s & 1960s
‘The Hungry Thirties’ ‘Butskellism’:
Economic legacy of WW1 - -
Refers to the thirties being a period of high unemployment and great The 1951-64 conservative governments accepted Labour’s approach the economy by managing it along Keynesian lines.
- Loss of trade: 20% of British ships were sunk during WW1 and therefore unable to
depression. A term invented by Left-Wing historians to discredit the - Both parties accepted the commitment to full employment and a mixed economy
trade following the war. Britain’s rivals the US and Japan took over many British -
Conservative government who dominated this period. Such the closeness, The Economist branded the approach ‘Butskellism’ to describe this consensual approach; this came
markets. Britain was also unable to trade with many nations she was at war with, as
from the names of Tory Chancellor Butler and Labour Leader Gaitskell.
many became more self-sufficient and continued this practice once the war had ended. A common modern view is that the impact of the depression was uneven across
- Debt: The war cost Britain £3.25 billion with debts of £8 billion by 1920. Wartime debts
Britain - The Illusion of affluence:
rose to 160% of income by 1924. -
1. Areas hit hardest were those that centred on the staple industries, such as The 1950s was seen as a period of affluence; consumer spending rose 45%
- Value of the pound: Britain was forced to abandon the Gold Standard in 1914, in order coal in the North and in South Wales, as well as shipbuilding in Scotland – - This was based on the increased ability for people to borrow money to spend.
to print enough money to cover the costs of war. This resulted in a rise in inflation.
in Jarrow every man was made redundant as all the staple industries But, this had consequences –
- Inflation: rose to 25% by 1918
closed. 1. Growth in inflation (around 4%)
- Technological development: medicine, transport and radio, at-large. Many of France 2. Unemployment rose to 2.5 million (25% of the workforce), but it was higher 2. Increase in imports – led to an imbalance of payments
and Germany’s factories were destroyed causing them to construct new more modern
in the North of Britain.
ones. Britain fell behind in industry and in 1918 Germany was producing twice as much 3. The depression also lowered productivity for the whole country and so Stop-go economics
steel as Britain.
demand for products fell. - The conservative governments of 1951-64 encouraged growth in consumer spending by relaxing laws on borrowing and
- 900,000 men killed: many made up the British workforce. 4. However, areas such as London and the South East remained prosperous credit.
and consumer industries boomed. - However, when the problems of inflation arose, controls to slow the economy down, such as tax rises and lowering wages,
Britain’s economic pattern in the 1920s:
- were put in place.
1919-20: saw a short post war boom; an increased demand for goods. Devaluation of the pound (1931)
- - This inconsistent approach was called ‘stop-go’ and demonstrated that controlling unemployment and inflation was
1920-21: a severe recession as unemployment rose to 12%. Heavy industry was hit - Depression led to a fall in exports by 50% impossible.
hardest as prices rose by 25% and wages failed to keep up with these increases. - Unemployment rose to 2.5 million by 1933
Causes of the recession - - The government cut spending and maintained high interest rates to Corporatism?
1. Loss of trade
preserve the value of the pound. - Britain was lagging behind its rivals in terms of economic growth
2. Underinvestment in traditional industry - The policy divided the Labour government, who resigned and the National - Macmillan’s 1957-63 government decided to follow a corporatism policy – a managed economy that united labour,
3. Declining industrial relations Government was formed. management and government through corporations to plan and achieve economic growth.
How did the recession end - - The National Government removed the pound from the Gold Standard and He established two departments named NEDDY and NICKY:
4. Spending cuts devalued the pound ($4.80  $3.40) NEDDY: The National Development Council and Office – Aimed to produce reports for the future of the economy. It
5. Although unemployment continued to average at around 10%
recommended pay freezes and tax hikes (not popular)
Impact of the pound being removed from the Gold Standard NICKY: The National Incomes Commission – Advisory board for unions and management. Trade Unions refused to cooperate
Failed economic policies - Allowed for quicker recovery from the depression than other countries with it at all.
- This approach was met with criticism from among the Tory party and the media. It was met with a quick U-turn.
The key features of the recovery are – - However, these ideas were continued under Wilson with the Department of Economic Affairs.
Interest  Government set high interest rates to curb inflation and raise
1. Unemployment fell from 17% to 8.5% between 1932 and 1937
rates and the value of the pound. However, this curbed economic
Value of the growth and made it more expensive for businesses to borrow 2. Interest rates were cut from 6% to 2% leading to greater borrowing – ‘Dash for growth’
Pound and invest as people were more likely to save then spend. ‘Cheap Money’ - Launched in 1963, after Tories abandon corporatism
 Britain returned to the Gold Standard in 1925, which restored 3. Government borrowing was cut by 1.5% - It was a demand management strategy based on the idea that injecting high levels of demand into the economy for a
the pound to its pre-war value($4.86). However, this was 4. Boom in mortgages and house building – triggered by greater borrowing sustained period would stimulate investment, raise productivity and thus enable the expansion to becoming self-sustaining.
disastrous for traditional industry. The high exchange rates 5. Industrial production rose by 46% - The policy was a failure: a higher demand just led to more imported goods and a massive balance of payments deficit.
made British exports more expensive and less competitive.
Stagflation
- By 1964, the key economic problem was stagflation (which was supposed to be impossible under Keynesian policy)
Tax,
spending
 To reduce inflation and repay debts as quickly as possible,
taxes were raised each year. (£18 per capita in 1919  £24
1940s The key causes of stagflation were –
1. Increased consumer spending which led to more imports
and per capita in 1922). 2. Increased borrowing from the IMF
balancing WW2 and Economic Policy 3. Rising unemployment
the budget Lloyd George appointed a Commission of National Expenditure to - Churchill expanded the governments role in the wartime economy, e.g.
find out where savings could be made - created several ministries which had a specific role in economic Wilson and devaluation of the pound
1. 1922 Geddes Axe: Led to £24 million in cuts in spending on
management - Wilson attempted to improve economic planning but attempts failed because of stagflation
education, pensions, unemployment benefit, housing and -
health. Government also controlled prices through controlling production levels - DEA never really got off the ground (reasons in 1A)
- National Government transformed Britain into a managed economy – - Avoided devaluation but in 1967 it was devalued from $2.80 to $2.40
2. Defence: Cut from £190 million to £111 million
3. Spending Cuts contributed to growing unemployment; rationing and conscription and registration for employment was made - Wilson tried to reassure the British people but suffered a huge loss in credibility.
never fell below 1 million during the war years. compulsory in 1941.
- During the war years, half the government spending was on military
Protectionism - Introduced duties and tariffs on foreign goods in order to - After the war military spending continued to be a government priority. By
protect British industry which struggled during WW1. They 1951 over 10% of GDP – 30% of expenditure – was on military. 1970s
helped in the short term, but created a lack of incentive to
modernise and compete with foreign traders. Economic aid during the 1940s How did Heath attempt to tackle the economy?
- Industries avoided introducing the changes to become - By December 1940, Britain's cash reserves were spent - Outlined ideas in Selsdon Man
competitive, so failed. - Churchill secured the Lend-Lease Agreement. This allowed the USA to -
- Wanted to reduce State intervention
Other nations imposed retaliatory tariffs which hampered -
supply Britain and debts would be repaid after the War. 1971 budget: cut state spending and tax
international trade. - This led to supplies being brought to Britain on ‘Liberty ships’ - Tried to control the union (1971 Industrial Relations Act)
- Britain was also a recipient of £6 billion of Marshall Aid from 1948
Led to huge unemployment in such areas (by 1933) –
1. 60% in Shipbuilding Why did Heath fail?
2. 49% in Iron and Steel Impact of Austerity - Oil Crisis (1973) – prices rose by 70%
- 1945: Britain had £4 billion worth of debt to the USA and with an additional - Rising inflation – rose by 20% after the crisis
loan in 1945, it would cost Britain just £70 million a day to finance the debt. - Rising unemployment – reached 1 million by 1972
- There was a £700 million deficit - Heath took a U-turn in government policy (refer to 1A)
- £2.5 billion was pumped into the economy. Although, it brought down unemployment to 550,000 it did signal that the Selsdon
Attlee government embarked upon a series of austerity measures – man had been abandoned.
1. Cuts in government spending
Rise of the Trade Unions:
2. Controlling private spending IMF Loan
- War had caused a huge growth in Trade Union membership.
3. Rationing of goods - Due to the Oil Crisis and inflation, Britain was nearly bankrupt.
- Increased from 4.3 million to 8.3 million between 1915 and 1918 -
- Unpopular: with the British public, particularly Trade Unions who were UK negotiated a £3 billion loan from the IMF
- 1926 General Strike: led to 323 strikes and 162 million working days being lost.
instructed to take a wage freeze or expect legal pay restraints. - This led to the abandonment of Keynesian economics as the UK had to conform to many rules in exchange for the loan. It
- Employers fired workers over unions lack of flexibility on wages.
marked a move away from full employment and paved the way for Thatcher in 1979.
- Unemployment never fell below 1 million during the two World Wars.
- Atlee was also forced to devalue the pound in 1949
1C Changes in Industrial Relations
1918-1939 1964-1979

The 1926 General Strike Patterns in industrial relations

Change within the interwar period -  No of wildcat strikes (unofficial strikes) increase – accounting for 90% of all strike action in the 1960s
- March 1926: Samuel Commission recommended reconstruction of coal industry, but
The brief post-war boom led to increasing disputes between trade unions and the  Growing union militancy – caused by workers wages fell behind inflation; felt left out and left behind
also a pay cut for miners.
government. This was caused by long-term industrial neglect and the surge in workers -  Deteriorating relationships with the unions – caused by persistent strikes and stagflation
Miners rejected the proposal with the slogan ‘not a minute off the day, not a penny off
joining unions.  Rising unemployment
- the day’.
1920s economic slump led to a weakening of the unions as many workers began to -  Tension with the unions reaches crisis point – three day work week and the ‘Winter of Discontent’
They called for TUC support in a strike
leave them. -
- TUC entered talks with the government, however on May 2nd Baldwin called off talks
1926 General Strike challenged government policy, but failed. The Wilson Government (1964-1970)
- and declared a State of Emergency.
Overall the period was marked by comparatively low incidents of industrial action. - Attitudes towards unions –
May 3rd: 3 million workers went on strike
- 9 days later the strike was over and workers were left to strike on their own for 6 1. Wilson’s projected image of an ‘ordinary bloke’ attracted union support
Key changes during the interwar period 2. Wilson wished to have a close relationship with the unions, wanted to talk over industrial disputes with “beer and
- months without success.
Much of the traditional industry was still rooted in Victorian Britain sandwiches at Number Ten”.
- Iron and Coal were the key industries; by the interwar period, they were outdated,
Why did the strike fall? 3. Trade Disputes Act (1965) – restored certain legal immunities for TU’s
underinvested and could not compete with foreign competition. - 4. Barbara Castle (1969) ‘In place of strife’ proposed:
- Workers didn’t properly coordinate their efforts; the government had been preparing
1919 Sankey Commission recommended continued government ownership of the - Secret ballots before strikes become compulsory
since 1925. They had created the Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies, a
mines following WW1 but they were returned to private ownership in 1921 and wages - A cooling off period of 90 days could be imposed at ministerial discretion
network of volunteers who stepped in to do essential jobs not done by striking workers.
began to fall. - - Fines be available for breaches of the law by union activists
- Churchill was put in charge of the government newspaper – The British Gazette –
Foreign competition took over in industry such as textiles, following The Great War. However, ‘in place of strife’ was so unpopular with the unions, it was never implemented.
- making it clear the government would not be held hostage to strike action.
Period saw the rise in modern industry – chemicals and the motor industry (centred - TUC limited violence during the strike; made it easier for the government to handle.
around London and the South East). - Expensive for the TUC: cost £4m of its £12.5m strike fund
- A liberal politician offered the TUC an unofficial settlement. Promising a National Wage The Heath Government (1970-74)
What was the impact of these changes? Attitudes towards unions –
Board and no wage cuts. The TUC accepted this offer and called the strike off.
‘Two Englands’ outlook: differentiated by old and new industry - 5. Wanted to limit power of the unions and refuse to prop up failing industries
1. The Older industries lost 1/3 of their workforce – unemployment was 3 million in 1932 6. 1971 Industrial Relations Act:
Trade Disputes Act: Created after the failure of the General Strike. It made sympathetic
2. Electrical appliance industries increased their workforce by 250% - Placed Limits on the rights to strike
strikes illegal. Therefore the TUC abandoned General Strike. Many men, as a
3. The service industries boomed - Insisted unions had to place themselves on a government register
consequence, became disillusioned with unions – TUC membership sank to its lowest ever
4. The building industry expanded 40% - Established the National Industrial Relations Court to judge the legality of strike action
in 1932.
- The Act failed because unions refused to comply. (The TUC mobilised a massive campaign of non-cooperation)

Notable Strikes:
Great Depression and Industrial Relations
- Unemployment rose to 3 million by 1932. Much of this was long-term, by 1932 16.4% of the unemployed had been so for over a year. Year & Event What happened Government response
- Mass unemployment led to a fall in Trade Union membership by almost 50% - from 8 million in 1922 to 4.5 million in 1932.
- Government tended to support the employer in trade disputes. Although, the government tried to supply support for the unemployed, they did not have the resources to do this.
- By 1939, traditional heavy industry was in terminal decline and working conditions remained poverty stricken.
1972 NUM strike  NUM demanded a 43% pay  Declares State of
rise Emergency
 Government offers 8%  Eventually offered a 27%
1939-1964  200,000 miners went on pay rise
strike

Employment 1974 NUM strike  1973 Oil Crisis led to higher  Government called a 3 day
Second World War led to more employment opportunities, like - wage demands work week.
1. Move towards full employment as Britain engaged in a ‘total war’  NUM demanded a 35% pay - Limited available electricity
2. More women in the work force rise to three days each week.
3. Better working conditions: improved healthcare, longer working hours but better wages. - 50mph driving limit
4. Control of Employment Act: Semi-skilled workers could take on skilled jobs - Some schools closed
5. Essential Work Order: Forced people to do particular jobs, 8.5 million issued by the
- Television ended at 10:30pm
government – made it difficult for workers to be fired.
each night.
There was growth in the ‘white-collar’ industries because –  1974 – Calls election with
6. People, on average, had higher incomes which created a greater demand for more ‘luxury’ campaign slogan ‘who
goods and services like meals out, which created more goods. governs Britain’ – he loses.
7. Government increased spending on healthcare and education, creating more public sector
jobs.
8. White-collar jobs were more difficult to mechanise and so weren’t lost to technological
advances. The Wilson & Callaghan Government (1974-79)
9. The collapse of traditional industry Attitudes towards unions –
10. Better education
1. Labour repealed the Industrial Relations Act and replaced it with a vague ‘Social Contract’ - a
Changes in Industrial Relations voluntary prices and wage control agreement.
2. Callaghan was determined to stick to a 5% limit to pay increases in 1978.
WW2  There were some strikes over wages and working hours
 Bevin, a trade unionist, became Minister for Labour in 1940 Deteriorating relationships –
Bevin Boys – men conscripted to work in coal mines between 1943 and 1948.
 1944 the government declared its long term commitment to high - 1978: A strike at Ford lead to a 17% raise for workers (embarrassment for the government)
employment - January 3rd, 1978: Oil tanker and Lorry Drivers strike; tanker drivers quickly receive a pay rise.
 War led to trade union inclusion in government decision making
Lorry drivers are left to picket for another 6 weeks – people begin to panic buy

Atlee  Working with unions; established as part of consensus. January 22nd Strikes lead to the ‘Winter of Discontent’ –
Govern-  Key industries were nationalised
ment  Trade unionists included on the nationalised board of the Bank of England
- 1.5 million public sector workers go on strike (they were protesting wage increases a condition of
 Conservative Industrial Charter (1947) shows consensus views on the IMF loan)
cooperation with the unions and protecting labour rights. - Almost all schools shut and other public building (e.g. libraries)
- Hospital staff strike (only treat emergencies)
1950s  Full employment and high trade union membership - Rubbish went uncollected
 Deteriorating relationship between the Conservatives and the TUC - In Liverpool, grave diggers strike and by the end of January, 225 corpse were awaiting burial
Double the number of strikes compared with the previous decade
 Growing divide between the workers and the middle class - Nearly 30 million working days had been lost to strike action by the end of 1979. 84% of the
public thought Trade Unions had become too powerful.
2A Welfare Support
Pre-1918 The Interwar Years
Overview Unemployment Pensions
- Poor Laws: welfare aid given in form of money or necessities to 1908 Pensions Act
Problems with the National insurance scheme
those in need - Undermined by the War as over 3.5 million returning troops were not eligible for the benefits, this was - State pensions were introduced
- Those in need were typically the old, the young, the sick and the - Hugely popular with eligible – over 70s
because they had not worked in one of the 6 industries or had not made sufficient contributions. The wartime
poor. First three were seen as ‘deserving’ and therefore warranted coalition recognised that reform was needed. - Criticism that they did not support the widows and children of the deceased.
assistance from the Church and the State.
- Until the end of the 19th century, healthy people of working age 1925: Widows’, Orphans and Old Age Contributory Pensions Act
‘Out of Work Donation’ (1918-20)
who fell into destitution were often seen as morally at fault – the - Shor-term solution was to offer benefits in the name of an ‘out of work donation’. It was offered to returning - Brought in by Neville Chamberlain – Minister for Health (would later serve as Prime Minister)
‘undeserving’ poor. They were housed in workhouse, where troops and the civilian population until they found work. - Addressed criticisms of the 1908 Pensions Act
conditions were terrible to discourage people from poverty. - Paid for through taxes and borrowing – there were no individual donations. - Provided a pension of 10 shillings per week for those aged 65-70 and provided for widows, their children and
- The process of showing that you ‘deserved’ welfare was a - orphans.
Established 2 precedents: government took responsibility for helping the unemployed and providing money
humiliating experience. for family dependents. - Funded by compulsory contribution rather than through taxation.
- Initially unpopular with Labour – they thought it penalised the poor; though economic conditions and an aging
The Liberals and State assistance 1920: Unemployment Insurance Act population generally led to its acceptance.
- No distinction between ‘deserving’ and ‘undeserving’ - - Self-employed workers of both sexes were allowed to join the scheme in 1937.
Developed to offer a longer-term solution; 2/3 of workers were eligible to claim insurance
1911: National Insurance Act – - The act was created just when the post-war slump was setting in. Rather than creating a self-funding
1. Employers, employees and the government would contribute to system, the eligible claimant quickly drained the funds.
the scheme - By 1921, the government had to make ‘extended’ payments – meant to be paid for through future
2. Provided benefits and healthcare through the funds provided Housing
employment but in reality were dole payments disguised as insurance Why was reform needed?
3. Only available to low paid workers whose income was less than - A means test was introduced in March 1921; 3 million claims were rejected as a result.
£160 per year. It didn’t insure their families and was only 1. Concern that slums encouraged disease and crime
available to 6 industries. 2. Government had promised ‘homes fit for heroes’
1929: Local Government Act
1917: Ministry of Reconstruction – - County and Borough Councils had to establish Public Assistance Committees (PAC’s); they were centrally
4. After WW1 there was a consensus that the government had to 1919: Housing and Town Planning Act:
funded - Empowered local authorities to used central funds to meet housing needs.
play a role in basic security - In response to the financial crisis of 1931, means testing was introduced; claimants combined household
5. The liberals promised ‘homes fit for heroes’ - Estimated that 600,000 houses would need to be built to meet demand.
income was thoroughly investigated to judge eligibility. - Only 213,000 were built before the Geddes Axe (refer to 1B); shortfall of 822,000 in 1923.
6. The Ministry of Reconstruction was established to build a better
Britain after the War. 1934: Unemployment Act Government Housing Legislation (Labour & Conservative):
- Part 1 of the Act: It provided 26 weeks of benefit payments to the 14.5 million who paid into the scheme. - Tory and Labour Housing Acts of 1923 and 1924, respectively, sought to use subsidies to encourage the
- Part 2 of the Act: Created a National Unemployed Assistance Board (UAB) to help those with no entitlement construction of private and state owned housing.
1964-1979 to insurance; by 1937 UAB had assisted 1 million people on a means tested basis. - Labour Housing Act (1930) encouraged a great deal of home building; improved housing in large cities
- By this point the Poor Law only applied to a few groups of people, such as widows who were not eligible for - 4 million homes were built in total; 1 million by the private sector
a pension. - Between 1924 and 1939, 20 ‘cottage estates’ built outside London; suburbs connected by rail.
Changes to welfare:
- 1959: National Insurance Act – introduced a top up scheme based - Home building not only led to indoor plumbing (prevent disease) but also a greater demand for domestic goods,
However, the government failed to tackle unemployment because they could not stimulate economic growth. such as furniture, further stimulating the economy.
on earnings
- 1971: Family Income Support Program – provided family
allowance for the first child
- 1975: Social Security Act Impact of WW2
Rising cost of welfare:
- Cost of unemployment benefit rose form 0.6% of GDP in 1939 to The impact of the Second World War The Atlee Government
8.8% in 1980 - WW2 led to a wide consensus that welfare provision was needed Labour won the 1945 election with the slogan ‘Let’s face the future’. They promised to implement the findings of the
- 1950/60 baby booms: 900,000 births per year meant higher care - A political will developed to iron out unfairness in the system Beveridge Report.
and education costs There were several reasons for this shift in attitudes:
- Increase in average life expectance (10 years) 1. A total war had prompted universal solutions – it affected everyone Acts of Parliament that laid the foundations of the Welfare State
- Higher living standards, prompted higher minimum standard of life 2. The sacrifices made during the war let to people expecting a just reward
for the poor- with absolute poverty tackled people turned to 3. The evacuation of children to the countryside conveyed the extent of inner city poverty Date Name Objective
tackling relative poverty. 4. The success of the state directed war economy led to confidence around government intervention during
- Growing size of the state required even more beurocracy. peacetime. 1944 Butler Education Act Compulsory free education; introduced tripartite system
5. The war forced government to borrow and spend large sums of money in pursuit of victory. Keynes's
Criticisms of the welfare state: economic views had been proven to work. 1945 Family Allowances Act Weekly payments given directly to the mother; 88% of those eligible
- Margaret Thatcher was a key critic of the welfare state, she feared 6. The National Government showed a great deal of co-operation between the three main parties. had applied by 1949
benefit payments created a poverty trap.
- Many feared the Welfare State was unsustainable with the The Beveridge Report 1946 National Insurance Act Compulsory system to pay for pensions and benefits for the
William Beveridge was a Liberal politician interested in Social Reform. In 1941 he was appointed to head a unemployed.
struggling economy.
government committee to investigation welfare provisions and recommend improvements. 1946 National Health Service Act Brought the entire nation into a free scheme of medical hospital care

Why was the report set up? –

1946 Industrial Industries Act Provided cover for accidents that happened at work
7. Set up on Churchill’s request
8. Partly to predict future developments
1948 National Assistance Act Established boards to deal with hardship and poverty; no means
9. Conservatives did not want a repeat of their broken promise ‘a home fit for heroes’ after WW1 testing.
10. Clear feeling that the end of war, could bring about a better world.

Aims of the Beveridge Report – Other Changes

11. Protections for all ‘from cradle to grave’ Housing -
12. Tackle the five giants of: want, disease, ignorance, squalor, idleness - 700,000 homes had been destroyed during the war; 230,000 new homes were built each year by 1948
13. Beveridge wanted the provision of welfare to be centralised - 1945-51: 1 million homes were constructed
14. State welfare should be funded entirely through a compulsory single insurance payment – under his - 4/5 of homes were built by the State
scheme he wanted to avoid any means testing. He did not want any extra government funding, as a Liberal
he didn’t want the system to incentivise dependence on the state. Nationalisation –
- Between 1946 and 1949 – coal, civil aviation, cable, wireless, Bank of England, road transport, electricity, gas,
The Report was extremely popular – railways, iron and steel, were all nationalised.
- 635,000 copies were sold
- Helped by timing – wining the war made these findings seem realistic Education –
- Copies were even dropped over Germany to encourage the civilian population to demand peace. - 900 primary schools were built; leaving age raised to 15.
2B Healthcare
Pre-1918
Before 1911
- Access to healthcare depended on wealth
- Workhouse infirmaries could treat the poor, however, if
these did not exist the poor had to rely of friendly
societies.
- Friendly societies: Offered some affordable health
insurance schemes. They would take a regular small
payment and then a lump sum when people needed
financial assistance; they were unregulated and could
go bankrupt.
1911: National Insurance Act
- Introduced by the Liberal Government
- Compulsory health insurance for low paid workers
earning less than £160 per year
- 1944: Butler Education Act
Employer, employee and government paid into the
scheme
- However, in 1911 the act covered on 6 industries.
The Interwar years
A Consensus over healthcare
- The government should play a greater role in
healthcare
- Government should develop a network of hospitals
1919: Ministry of Health
- feared becoming civil servant.
War recruitment conveyed poor standard of health –
40% of men declared unfit for combat
- Ministry lacked the authority to drastically reform the
healthcare system
- Medical services (such as the School Medical Service)
were still controlled by other authorities
Insurance Companies
- Post WW1: Growth in insurance companies; controlled
75% of the market
- ‘Approved Societies’ would collect subscriptions and
pay costs; by 1937 18 million workers were covered by
State health insurance
Access to General Practitioners (GP’s)
- GPs were the first resort for medical care
- Patients had to pay for consultation and for medicine;
this meant GPs were unevenly distributed with more
working in wealthier areas.
- When the NHS was established GPs were shocked that
people were putting up with serious problems such as
rotting teach because they could not afford treatment.
Hospital Treatment
- Best hospitals were teaching hospitals: only 12 in
London and 10 in provinces
- Voluntary hospitals were smaller and less financially
secure, by the end of the 1930s most were in serious
financial trouble.
- -
There were 1,100 voluntary hospitals.
1929 Local Government Act:
- Poor Law hospitals were converted to Local Hospitals
- More powers to local government in managing
healthcare
Expanding healthcare following the ‘Local Government Act’
– - 1962: First Hip replacement
1. Specialist teaching hospitals were established
2. GPs treated more people through the National
Insurance Scheme
3. Less than half the population, however, had health
insurance
4. By 1939, more groups were advocating for a National
Health Service.
Impact of WW2
Overview
- Helped to create a consensus on healthcare reform
- Emergency Medical Service was established (1939): provide first aid for air raid
casualties; later used to treat civilians and evacuated children
- EMS provided the blueprint for the NHS
- National Blood Transfusion Service was also created
- 1942 Beveridge Report called for a National Health Service; in 1944 presented the
White Paper ‘A National Health Service’ which called for ‘comprehensive’ and ‘free of
charge’ health services in Britain
Creation of the National Health Service (NHS)
Aneurin Bevan was appointment Minister for Health –
1. Born into a mining family in South Wales; left school at 13
2. Became Minister for Health in the Attlee Government
National Health Service Act –
3. Established a coordinated and centralised system
4. All voluntary hospitals were nationalised
Opposition to the NHS
The Conservatives –
• only 5% of students attended.
Voted against the formation of the NHs 21 times before the act was passed – they
were against state control
• Terms like “medical Gestapo” and “medical fuhrer” were bandied about by BMA
members.
• Bevan attacked the Conservatives calling them “lower than vermin”
Local authorities –
• 1965: Crosland Circular
Didn’t wish to lose control of their hospitals
The BMA -
• Main opposition to the NHS came from Doctors
• Argued working for the state would undermine their clinical independence and doctors
• In reality, most probably feared losing income
• February 1948: 90% of the BMA voted against working with the NHS; they were out of
step with the public as 75% of them had signed up with the NHS
• Overcame this opposition by granting them a fee for each patient and allowing them to
retain private patients – ‘stuffing their mouths with gold’
• 90% of doctors joined the NHS in July 1948.
1951-1979
Change
- New antibiotic drugs on the NHS led to decrease in tuberculosis deaths: 25,000 to
5000 (per year)
- 1958: Mass immunisation program launched, led to a huge drop in polio. The disease
was eradicated by 1984.
- 90% drop in cases of whooping cough by 1970
- MMR vaccine offered free of charge on the NHS since 1988
- Child morality fell: from 10% in 1926 to 1.5% in 1951 (of all deaths)
- Deaths in child birth fell from 1 per 1000 in 1949 to 0.18 per 1000 in 1970
- Significant increase in life expectancy – higher than Britain’s rival nations.
Rising Costs
- Bevan and Beveridge believed cost of the NHS would fall after 1948, believing than
once people became healthier they would use the service less.
- However, between 1950 and 1970 the cost of the NHS increased from 4.1% of GNP to
4.8% - this was in part due to new treatments. E.g. 1948: 1 antibiotic, 1968: 33
- Forced to introduce charges for spectacles and denatures (1951) – caused a split in
the party and Bevan resigned
People also began to take up NHS time to complain about trivial problems – Bevan had
hoped to avoid this ‘dandruff syndrome’
- Between 1948 and 1979 NHS staff doubled from ½ million to 1 million
Medical Advances
- 1953: Structure of DNA is discovered, allows for research into genetic disorders
- 1960: First Kidney transplant
- 1967: Abortion act – made abortion legal up to 28 weeks
- CT scanning invented in 1972 and became
standard NHS equipment
2C Education
Legislation
Legislation Description
1902: Education Act  In exchange for state funding 1000 grammar schools offer 25% of place to non-fee students who pass an exam
 However, only 56/1000 elementary school students gained a place
1918: ‘Fisher’ Education  Aimed to widen access to education: increasing the school leaving age to 14; nursery was provided to toddlers;
Act fees were scrapped for elementary school
1926: Haddow Report  Recommended elementary schools be replaced with primary schools.
 Recommended a tripartite system of grammar, modern and technical
 Nothing was changed until the 1944 Butler Act
 Aimed to tackle the giant of ‘ignorance’
 School leaving age increased to 15 in 1947
 Secondary education made free and universal
 Follow the tripartite system set out in the Haddow Report; pupils would take the 11+ exam and their results would
determine which school they went to.
Technical schools: Specialised in mechanical and technical education; very few were established because of the high cost and
Modern Schools: Gave general education; 70% of students attended these schools; children would usually leave at 15 with a
certificate of Education.
Grammar Schools: Provide an academic education, they were usually single-sex. 20% of students went to grammars. Most
stayed until 16 to take O-level exams, some then took A-levels and some then went to university.
 Between 1960 and 1979 there was a large debate over whether comprehensive schools should replace the tripartite
system.
 By 1964, 10% of all pupils were educated in comprehensive schools, which accepted pupils of all abilities.
 1965: Education Secretary Anthony Crosland issued a document – Crosland Circular – calling for universal comprehensive
education.
 1966: Government will only fund schools that adopted comprehensive reform
 By 1979, 90% of students were educated at Grammar schools
Arguments for comprehensive education-
- Grammar schools had 3x the resources of secondary modern schools. This did not promote ‘parity’ as promised in the
1944 Education Act.
- Many Secondary Modern Schools were in poor condition and pupils who failed the 11 plus were condemned to an
education of fewer opportunities.
- 11 plus favoured middle-class children; very few working class children ever passed the exam.
- The majority of the public wanted to scrap the 11 plus.
Arguments against comprehensive education –
- Many grammar schools produced highly successful students
- Grammar schools were seen as a precious opportunity for social advancement
- In 1975 the government forced direct grant grammar schools to go comprehensive. Instead many went independent and
scrapped free places for working class children.
- The majority of the public wanted to keep grammar schools.
1963 Robbins Report  Report recommended a universal national grant be provided to all students with a university place
 There should be a large increase in state funding to increase the number of university places.
The advice was acted upon –
- Between 1962 and 1970: 22 to 46 universities
- 1964: Labour created the CNAA which allowed non-universities to award degrees.
- Colleges upgraded to polytechnics which awarded vocational degrees (although seen as inferior)
- Open University established in 1969; aimed at adults
- University students increased from 185,000 to 237,000 between 1970 and 1983 (this was still far behind other
industrialised nations)
- There was also less pressure to leave school at a young age
University before the Robbins Report –
- Government funding for university had increased from £1 million in 1919 to over £80 million in 1962
- Between 1920 and 1950 students only paid 1/8 of their university costs compared to 1/3 as bursaries became common
place.
- In 1962 local authorities were compelled to give an allowance or ‘grant’ to enable students to concentrate on their studies.
- University of London began to focus more on STEM subjects
- However, University was still out of reach for many – between 1900 and 1962 the number of students attending university
only increased from 0.8% to 4%
- Only 13% of students at Oxbridge were female.
1967: Plowden Report  A report on primary schools that promoted more liberal teaching methods, including:
- More project based work rather than teacher led activities
- A focus on learning through play in the early years of teaching
- The teaching of grammar and punctuation was seen as a hinderance to creativity and a threat to progress.
Many schools took these reforms to extremes –
 Some schools introduced relaxed discipline, no uniform and teachers were to be called by their first names
 In the William Tyndale Junior School in North London, pupils could chose which lessons to attend and could watch
television and play table tennis if they preferred.
 Parents became worried about ‘trendy teachers’ and a lack of discipline in schools.
1973: Education Act  Raised the school leaving age to 16
 Work experience placements could replace lessons in a students final year
3A Changes in Class 3B Growth of the Permissive Society
Upper Class Liberal Laws A more sexual society?
- Led to 25% of all gentry land being sold off. Evidence For Evidence Against
Features of the Upper Class - 1959 ‘Obscene Publications Act’: Allowed serious
- Rise of Labour works of art to use ‘obscene’ words and imagery.
Hugely Wealthy - - Mass observation reports suggest
- Labour’s MPs were Middle/Working class - 1961 ‘Suicide Act’: Decriminalised the act of suicide.
Owned vast amounts of Land - - WW2 undermined traditional values by women who had wartime affairs saw
- Wealthy land owners made up 40% of MPs in 1910, this had - 1965 ‘Murder Act’: Abolished the death penalty. Majority
Privately educated in schools like Eton separating husbands and wives – them as a product of difficult
fallen to 5% by 1945. of MPs supported the abolishment; public did not.
Had an exciting social calendar called ‘the season’ – divorces peaked in 1947 circumstances and happily retuned to
House of Lords - 1967 ‘Sexual Offences Act’: Decriminalised
• The Season was divided between country pursuits (e.g. hunting) from - their husbands after the war – the
Parliament Act (1911) meant the Lords could only delay rather homosexual acts between two consenting men aged - A number of post-war books helped divorce rate fell after 1947.
autumn to spring and a series of sporting and cultural events, largely
than block legislation. over 21. promote more liberal attitudes towards
based in London, during the Summer months. - From 1958 hereditary peers were replaced by nominated life - 1967 ‘Abortion Act’: legalised abortions and made them sex - Two major studies – ‘The Sexual
• The London Season began with the presentation of aristocratic
peers. available on the NHS Behaviour of Young People’ (1965)
daughters of marriageable age to the monarch at the ‘debutantes ball’ - However, there was a rise of the new upper class, based on - 1967 ‘Family Planning Act’: The pill becomes available - Alfred Kinsley’s ‘Sexual Behaviour in and ‘Sex and Marriage in England
• Debutantes Ball ended in 1958
wealth rather than ancestry. Macmillan’s cabinet had 40 Old on the NHS. the Human Female’ undermined the Today’ (1971) – suggests the notion of
- The upper class also enjoyed events such as Royal Ascot, Rowing,
Etonian members. - 1968 ‘Theatres Act’: Abolished censorship in the moral condemnation of sex before a sexual revolution in Britain is hugely
Sailing – giving them a clear sense of identity.
Rise of Satire marriage. exaggerated.
theatre. Allowed the screening of some films with
- Rise of satire in the 60s and 70s undermined deference.
Changes in the Upper Class: sexual content. - 1959 Obscene Publications Act and - The sexual behaviour of young people
National Trust - 1969 ‘Divorce Reform Act’: allowed couples to divorce if
WW1 - 1968 Theatre Act allowed more found that only 18% of girls and 10%
Many country homes were bought or donated to the National they had been separated for two years, or five years if
- Took a disproportionate toll on the upper class. Whilst 13% of all men ‘obscene’ sexual content. of boys in his sample of teenagers had
Trust only one party wanted to divorce.
in the army died, 20% of Old Etonians died – this was largely - had sex with more than 3 people, and
1937 Country Houses Scheme allowed families to live in their -
because they often served as officers (high mortality rate) Dr Alex Comforts ‘The Joy of Sex’ was that only 17% of girls and 33% of boys
stately homes rent-free for 2 generations if they transferred
- Cost of War: rise in income tax and death duties. Estates over 2 sexually explicit and illustrated. It dealt had had sex before age 19.
ownership to the National Trust and opened the house to the
million faced an increase of 40% in duties. Tax on incomes over
public for at least 60 days a year. Did Britain become more liberal? with sex as a pleasure.
- Sex and Marriage in England Today,
£2500 increased from 2% (1914) to 57% (1925). - The country house lifestyle remained the ultimate goal for most - 1974, soft porn film ‘Emmanuelle’ found that 96% of women and 95% of
- Harder for the Upper Class to pay for their country estates.
rich Britons. became the first adult film shows in men were married before 45 and that
- Demand for these laws came not from the people but
cinema. the average age of marriage for
from MPs – Roy Jenkins supported many liberal
women fell below 23 in 1970. This
Middle Class reforms - By 1990 less than 1% of first sexual down from 25 in 1946.
- Often these laws were the result of long campaigns far intercourse took place after marriage.
- before the ‘swinging 60s’
Features of the Middle Class More female employment (clerking jobs: 700,000 in 1911 to 1.4
- Often these laws went against the views of the British
- Low-middle class distinguished themselves from the working class million in 1951).
- people – the majority of people believed in capital
through their leisure pursuits – they saw themselves as upright, moral Workers in such jobs saw themselves as modern, progressive
punishment after the 1965 Murder Act (70% by 1970)
people and often looked down on the working class. and financially responsible.
- These laws were often passed because of the
- After WW1 a £250 annual salary was considered middle class. Home Ownership
- impracticality of current legislation. E.g. abortion reform
(£28,000) Became a defining feature of the middle class
- - was passed not because of moral issues but to limit the
Home ownership became a defining characteristic of the middle ‘new middle class’ who bought homes since 1920
- number of backstreet abortions.
class. By 1939, 60% of middle class were home owners, compared
with 20% of the working class.
Changes in the Middle Class: - The suburban lifestyle also came to define the working class.
WW1 Homosexuals: more accepted? Opposition to the permissive society
- Following the war, the middle class thought the distinction between
them and the working class was being eroded. Evidence For Evidence Against
- There was a (false) perception that working class wages were Margaret Thatcher
- - Became increasingly outspoken about her disdain for the permissive society and her
increasing whilst middle class wages stagnated. In the mid 1950s over
- Wartime inflation contributed to this fear due to its impact on middle- - The high profile trial of 1000 men were fears for standards of public decency.
Lord Montagu and imprisoned for their - 1970 Finchley Press: ‘I should like to see a reversal of the permissive society’
class savings and incomes: something that cost £100 in 1914 cost
Journalist Peter sexuality. - Complained in 1977 that ‘basic Christian values…are under attack’.
£276 in November 1920.
- Middle class blamed the Trade Unions for pushing up prices and Wildeblood (both
convicted) led to - A poll in 1963 revealed Mary Whitehouse
wages.
growing public that 93% of the - Took a stance against damage done to British morals by the media
Rise of Middle Class jobs perception that the population thought
- - Criticised Hugh Carleton-Green, Director General of the BBC from 1960-69, blaming
34% growth in commercial and financial jobs (1911-1921) state should not be homosexuality was an
- Growth in STEM employment him for the growth of liberal, permissive values on television.
able to regulate what illness. - Her clean up TV petition in 1964 gained 500,000 signatures.
two consenting adults - 1977: launched a legal battle against magazine ‘Gay News’ for publishing a
do in private. - Even after the 1967
‘blasphemous’ poem – she won her case and the magazine owner was fined.
Act, it remained illegal
Working Class - 1967 Sexual Offences to ‘solicit’ homosexual
- Campaigned against pornography – may have influenced the governments decision in
Act legalised sexual acts. 1981 to force sex shops to have black out windows.
relations between men
- Evacuation of young poor children led to a greater degree of aged 21 and over. - The number of men Nationwide Festival of Light
Features of the Working Class: -
- sympathy for the poverty endured by the working class. arrested for public Hyde Park, 1971
Comprised of skilled workers and unskilled labourers - -
The War also restored traditional working class industry. - In the 1970s a number indecency trebled Staged to promote Christian morality
- Did manual jobs often with irregular wages.
Welfare State of men made ‘camp’ between 1967 and - Rally was support by famous figures such as Cliff Richard
- Attlee government introduced significant welfare reforms. behaviour acceptable 1972. - Inspired over 70 regional rallies
Changes in the working class: on TV. -
(see 2A) Attracted crowds of over 100,000 people.
WW1 - ‘Camp’ tv stars like
- Consumerism
Smaller percentage of working class fought in the war – mainly - - A British branch of the Larry Grayson publicly
Working class could take advantage of mass leisure activities.
because of ‘reserved occupations’ such as coal mining deemed - Gay Liberation Front denied being gay – told
Dissolved boundaries between the working and middle class.
essential to the war effort and partly due to the poor health of the was set up in 1971. newspapers they just
working classes – In 1918 31% of men were classed as too sickly for pretended.
combat. - In the 1970s Elton
Trade Unions John and David Bowie
- Between 1915 and 1918 trade union membership doubled (1C) admitted to being
- Suffered loss in the interwar period but gained momentum after WW2. bisexual.
- Protected the right and wages of the working class
- Aided the rise of the labour party.
WW2
- United the British people under a total war – led to a greater sense of
unity
3C Changes in immigration and the role of women
Immigrants from the Commonwealth (Post 1948)
- During WW2 many Commonwealth citizens fought and died for Britain.
- After the War, the Labour Government passed the ‘British Nationality
Act’ (1948). This said that all citizens of the Commonwealth were
British Citizens.
- The Act meant that Commonwealth citizens had the right to come and
settle in Britain.
- The earliest immigrants came from India, where after independence in
1947, some natives found themselves isolated.
- In the early 1950s many immigrants began to arrive from the West
Indies.
- -
India, Pakistan and the West Indies became known as the ‘New
Commonwealth’.
- -
NHS along with other forms of nationalisation meant there was a
demand for workers.
- -
In 1954: 9000 West Indies came to Britain, rising to 66,000 by 1961.
- Wages in Britain were much higher than in other parts of the
Commonwealth and the standard of living was rising very quickly.
Problems with Immigration
- Immigrants often found themselves living in the poorest
accommodation in the worst areas of big cities.
- Some areas – notably Toxteth in Liverpool – were suffering from what
the government called “white flight” – as the traditional white
population began to move to other parts of the city.
- ‘The Colour Bar’: Employers would not hire immigrants nor would
landlords rent to immigrants.
- Trade Unions failed to support immigrant workers – white trade
unionists were often concerned their jobs would be taken by black
immigrants who would work for less.
- On average immigrants were paid 28% less than white workers
- ‘Teddy Boy’ gangs of young, white men sought to intimidate black
immigrants.
Problems with Immigration
- In the St Ann’s area of Nottingham in August 1958: a crowd of up to
1000 black and white youths fought each other; resulted in a number
of stabbings.
- A few days later, in Notting Hill, gangs of 300-400 white men armed
with chains, iron bars, knives and petrol bombs attacked local black
people and their homes.
- These Notting Hill race riots were sparked by a Teddy Boy attack on a
white woman who had a black partner.
- The riots lasted two weeks. 140 were arrested, but their were
concerns that police had been too slow to act.
- After the riots, 3% of the immigrant population returned to the
Caribbean. Caribbean governments made official complaints to the
British Government about housing and prejudiced policing.
1960s: Changing Government Policy
The 1962 ‘Commonwealth Immigrants Act’
- This stated that only immigrants with jobs waiting for them or those
possessing certain skills would be allowed into Britain.
- Immigrants had to apply for a voucher, which would only be issued if
they could offer skills that were needed in Britain. The number of
vouchers was limited each year to about 9,000.
- The Act did not apply to Australia, Canada and New Zealand.
1960s: Why did the situation get worse? Role of Women
- In 1967, the National Front, a racists party that wanted immigrants to
Interwar  1918 Representation of the People Act – women over 30 could vote
be sent back to their original countries was set up.
- Years –  1928 extended to all women
President Kenyatta ordered all Kenyan Asians to take Kenyan
political ROPA led to political advancement:
nationality or leave the county. Many left and came to Britain. advanceme o 1918 election: only 17 women stood as candidates and only 1 won
nt o Highest number of female MPs was in 1931
 Women’s groups became split over feminist issues (equality of opportunity/numerical
1968: Commonwealth Immigrants Act equality)
 Party’s did not want to risk a female candidate in safe seats.
- Stated that immigrants must have a close connection to Britain
This included being born in Britain or having a parent or grandparent
who had been.
The Act also restricted the number of vouchers to no more than 1,500.
- By the late 1960s immigration had become a major political issue New job  More jobs due to WW2
Opinion Polls showed that 80% of people that too many immigrants opportuniti o Jobs in traditionally male work (replaced men at war)
had been allowed into Britain. es after o Queen Elizabeth was a car mechanic
WW2 o Percentage of women who worked as engineers or in transport rose from 14% in 1939 to
33% in 1945.
 WW2 triggered desires and aspirations beyond the home; in the 1950 edition of
1968: Commonwealth Immigrants Act ‘Manchester Guardian’ 50% of housewives bemoaned of being bored.
 Some women forced out of work after WW2, but change was more permanent than
- This created a new class of immigrants called ‘Patrials’. WW1
- o 1951: ¼ of married women worked, 1970: ½ did
These were people who had been born in Britain, whose parents or
grandparents had or who had lived more than five years in Britain.
- Anyone else, regardless of where they came from, needed a work
permit.
1960s and 70s: Changing Government Policy Post- War  Little parliamentary representation: only 23 female MPs in 1974
political  Female MPs often exceptionally talented due to having to overcome huge opposition to
representati get into Parliament.
- From the late 1950s to early 1960s, immigration into Britain rose very on  Barbara Castle – Equal Pay Act
rapidly.
- From 1955 to 1961, 400,000 people came to Britain from the West
Indies, India and Pakistan.
- Welfare  Family Allowance Act – Eleanor Rathbone ensured payments went to the mother.
Extra labour was not needed because most jobs had been filled.
- By 1960 many families were moving over and men who had settled in State  NHS – free healthcare for women
the 1950s were brining across their families.  1961 – pill introduced
- By the early 1960s unemployment was starting to rise. It was also  Improved Midwifery – reduction in death during birth (1945: 1/1000, 1963: 0.18/1000)
obvious that immigration had led to severe racial tension. The
 However, 1946 National Insurance Act classed non-working wives as ‘dependants’ and
they could not claim unemployment benefit.
government believed it could calm these tensions by placing caps on
immigration numbers.
Liberal  1967 – Abortion Act
Legislation  1969 – Divorce Reform Act
Reducing racial tension  Rate of divorce: 3/1000 marriages (1963) to 10/1000 (1976)
- The 1965 ‘Race Relations Act’ banned discrimination in all public
places, such as a pubs, clubs and dancehalls.
- It became illegal to publish anything that incited racial hatred.
- The Act set up the ‘Race Relations Board’ in 1966, which dealt with
complaints. But this had no power to enforce its decisions and was
made up entirely of white people.
- In 1968 a second ‘Race Relations Act’ banned discrimination in
housing, work or training. It also banned racist adverts.
- However, this was hard to enforce and landlords as well as employers
could simply say the vacancy had been filled.
- This act set up a Community Relations Commission to try to improve
race relations.
- 1976 the ‘Racial Equality Act’ banned all attempts to discriminate by
indirect means. Abusive and threatening language became illegal.
4A Living Standards 4B Mass Popular Culture
Boom, Crisis, Recovery & War Consumer Society Cinema
Popularity Audience Content British Cinema
Incomes
Real Income - Historian Eric
- Real income – this considers the effect of  Grew Popular during WW1 - 1916 Battle of the  Typical cinemagoer was  Content controlled by BBFC (British  WW1 led to collapse of British film cinema - due
Hobsbawm: 1950-70s Somme seen by 20 million in first 6 weeks young, urban and working Board of Film Censors) established to funding problems, disruption of production and
inflation.  1928, Talkies further increased popularity - class (often female) 1912 use of studios for propaganda
- Severe Recession (1921): wages for the was the ‘golden era’
of Western Capitalism cinema most important medium of popular  In 1946 - 69% of 16-19 year  Led by conservative, upper-middle  1925 only 5% of films shown in cinemas were
poor fell until 1934 - Real disposable culture in interwar years - no. of cinemas olds went once a week class men who were concerned about British
However living standards continued to improve, increase from 3000 in 1914 to 5000 in 1930 compared to 11% of over-60s the impact of cinema on  1927 quota ensures 20% of films shown were
income rose 30% in  Another boom during WW2 - popular war films  Peoples in the North went on ‘impressionable’ audiences British-made
because:
o Prices fell faster than wages 1950s, 22% in 1960s include 1942 In Which We Serve (about the average twice as much as  1917 ’43 rules’ were the unofficial  ‘Americanization’ of cinemagoers in 40s - youths
o An increase in the use of contraception and 30% in 1970s. navy) and 1943 The Gentle Sex (exploring people in the South regulations of what was acceptable to dressing like gangsters and girls like actresses,
- People spent more on wartime problems for women)  However people still show using slang like ‘sez you’
meant families shrank. (2.9 children in 1920  Admissions peaked in 1946 at 1.64 billion encouraged the same types of  1928-1939, the BBFC banned 140  1950 ‘Eady Levy’ charge on tickets was used to
housing, cars,
compared with 4.6 in 1880).  1950 - average person went 28 times a year film films subsidies British film-making
o Real cost of living fell by 1/3 between 1920 durables and
(more than any other country)  Saturday mornings were for  1959 Obscenities Act, and 1968  James Bond -popular British film
entertainment.  However attendance fell until late 80s - half of kids films with cheap seats Theatres Act loosened censorship  British film production collapsed in 70s - number
an 1938 - 1950-70: Home
o Average wages doubled during WW2 all cinemas closed 1955-1963. This was due to  By 70s more violent, sexual films like of British films made each year fell from 40 in
ownership increased the rise of television 1971 A Clockwork Orange and 1974 1968 to 31 in 1980
from 29% to over Emmanuelle  This was due to funding cuts
Housing
- 4 million homes built during the inter-war 50%, car ownership
rose from 16% to
period Radio
- Homeowners: 10% in 1914, 32% in 1938 52%.
- Harold MacMillan:
- Effect of the Blitz: 3.5 million homes were National & Regional Programme The War Years Home, Light & Third The Pirates
‘Most of our people
bombed; 60 million changes of address)
- 1946 ‘New Towns Act’ have never had it so  BBC founded in 1927 as a ‘quango’  National and Regional  Peacetime programming returned  Despite BBC’s monopoly on radio ‘Pirate’ stations
good’.  Two radio services - National programme and programmes replaced with the after war like radio Caroline, Radio Luxembourg broadcast
- By 1965 the Regional Programme Home Service  The Light Programme (created 1945) from ships
Health and Diet  Both aimed at a general audience  Done to prevent enemy was a mix of comedies an soaps, was  1967 Act banned pirate radio - Radio Caroline
- 700,000 died and 1.7 million were injured necessities of food
and clothing absorbed  BBC established itself as a ‘public service aircraft using regional radio as the most popular - held 1/3 of the 11 ignored this
during the War broadcaster’ aimed to enrich and educate navigation million daily listeners  1967 Light Programme split into BBC 1 and BB2 -
- By 1921: Over 1m men were receiving only 30% of listeners  Programmes like Workers’  Daytime shows aimed at women at BBC 1 first channel dedicated to pop and a
consumer spending.  Programmes like the monarch’s Christmas Playtime aimed to boost home (gender roles) younger audience , while the Third Programme
disability pensions.
- WW1 – 40% of men exposed as unfit for message and anniversary programmes for New morale or factory workers  The Third Programme was highbrow became BBC 3, and Home Service became BB4
Growth of consumerism Year and Empire Day were ‘reassuring symbols  News and speech based classical music and drama (attracted  1973 Act ended monopoly and introduced
combat - The number of homes of national community’ entertainment only 3% of listeners) competition - BBC1 still popular (Breakfast Show
- Diets improved due to rationing attracted 20 million listeners
- By 1922 infant mortality had halved from with central heating
rose from 5% in 1960
1900
- More people were living beyond 65. to 50% in 1977 Music
- Growth in TV
- Regional Variations: infant mortality was x5
ownership- nearly  20s  30s  40s  50s  60s  70s
in Wales compared with Kensington.
- Carers for evacuated children were every household had
one by 1970  Vera Lynn - slow  Swing and  Country,  1955 film ‘Black Board Jungle’  Skiffle bands become popular -  Different genres, escapist/
shocked by their poor diet. - Between 1947 and sentimental bop Western and marks the arrival of rock’n’roll influenced by folk, blues and jazz reflective of troubled times
- Rationing: ‘Dig for Victory’ campaign music blues  Elvis Presley - the ‘King’ of  Beatles start as a skiffle band called the  Early 70s ‘glam rock’ - David
1970 the amount of  Rag time and rock’n’roll - a more sexual, wild Quarry Men in Liverpool, develop into Bowie, Gary Glitter, their
encouraged people to grow their own
money spent on Jazz from kind of music ‘the Beatles’ in Hamburg androgynous look indicative of
vegetables.
- Rationing ended in 1954. advertising tripled. America  British music companies  1962 single ‘Love me Do’ released, more fluid attitudes to sexuality
- 1957 Old Spice was  Dance Halls very responded with more ‘safer’ leading to ‘Beatlemania’ and gender
advertised – more popular (esp. artists like Cliff Richard  1964 ‘British Invasion’ launched - British  Late 70s Punk - The Sex Pistols,
Regional Variations with working  Rock’n’roll coincided with the birth music globally influential and respected, angry music, promoted rebellion
- Industrial areas like South Wales fared men used deodorant
- 1947: first class) with of the teenager (‘teenagers’ also benefitted Britain through exports and anarchy, reflected dire
worse than new industries like London. American dances emerge because young people  Beatles commercialised music - their economic situation and
- Traditional industry was dependent on supermarket opens; like the have more disposable income made £100 million through merchandise frustration with politicians and
short lives Charleston, and stay in school longer) establishment - female punk
exports – damaged by the two wars. - 1950: Sainsburys
- Rise of long-term structural unemployment swing, jive empowered women
opens in Croydon
– by 1932 16.4% of the unemployed had - 1972: Ministry for Television
been so for a year or more.
- 1944 Beveridge concluded that 85% of all Consumer Affairs set Popularity Cultural Impact
up to protect
long-term unemployment was in South  TV exploded as a mass medium  Blurred class divisions - everyone watched similar programmes
consumers.
Wales, Scotland and North England.  Sales spurred by coronation of Queen Elizabeth II  Formed important part of culture - discussion of shows formed part of daily conversation
- Regional Variations in the means test  Because of popular use of leisure time  Colour TV - perhaps made reporting on violence like The Troubles or Vietnam war
Credit
- 1974: ‘Consumer  Late 70s people watched 16 hours a week in summer,  1955 BBC monopoly ended - 14 other stations began broadcasting
Consumption 20 in winter  1962 Piking Report led to: 1964 Television Act - forced ITV to screen news, two plays and two current affairs programs -
- Car ownership was more common in the Credit Act’ clarified
 Men + Women spent 23% of their leisure time and BBC 2
the rights and watching TV (twice as much as Belgium, Italy, The Wednesday Play (BBC 1964-1970) screened hard hitting, social realist plays like 1965 Up the Junction (about abortion)
South East 
- 1920: 730,000 people had electricity. In responsibilities of Sweden) and 1966 Cathy Come Home (about homelessness) seen by 6-10 million peoples
lenders and  Colour TV began in 1967 - percentage of colour sets  Working class/ middle class enjoyed shows like Coronation Street (launched 1960) seen by 20 million
1938 this rose to 9 million. By 1961, 96% of
borrowers, paved the went from 1.7% in 1970 to 70% in 1979  Rise of satire (That Was The Week That Was/ TWx3) questioned and mocked the establishment, again dissolving class
homes had electricity.
- 1926 ‘Electricity Supply Act’ created the way for an explosion boundaries
of borrowing in the  Other popular programmes; Upstairs Downstairs - set in England between 1903-1930 and police shows like The
National Grid
- ¼ of consumer spending was controlled by 1980s and 1990s. Professionals and The Sweeney - averaged 19 million viewers
- Credit Cards began  70s rise of sitcoms like Fawlty Towers
rationing.
being used in 1966.
4C Leisure Pursuits
Growth in Spectator sports Growth in holidays Travel Developments
Football – Growth and decline of spectatorship 1935 Only 1.5 million out of 18.5 million workers have Cars
paid holiday
Clubs Attendance Cost Ownership Impact
1910 12 000 1914 23 000 1914 2.5p 1938 • Holiday with Pay Act strongly suggest employers • Increased rapidly after • Ministry of Transport spent
1948 17 973 1938 31 000 1918- 5p pay for 3 consecutive days of Holiday WW1 - from 100 000 in lots of money to improve
• 7.75 million workers enjoy this 1919 to two million in roads until the mid-1930s
1967 30 862 1948-9 41.2 mil 1939 • Most spend their holidays at the seaside 1939 • By 1939, 1.4 million jobs
1985 41 069 1969-70 29.6 mil 1968 25p • Cheaper, smaller cars were dependant on the
1979-80 24.6 mil 1981 £1 1960 Two weeks paid holiday for manual workers like the Austin Seven motor industry
(1922) made motoring • Ribbon development -
1975 Three weeks paid holiday affordable for the middle houses and factories
Growth & decline following WW2
class began to stretch out along
Growth Decline after WW2 1979 Four weeks paid holiday • Price of cars halved roads
between 1924-1938 • More people were able to
• Few restrictions on live in the suburbs - the
• Britain was the global leader in Television Holidays in the interwar period motorists helped to populations of many cities
developing football as a national • Fans watched sports shows instead of popularise cars - driving (including London)
test only introduced in declined between 1911 and
sport watching live, shows included Match of - Seaside visits 1934 1951
• Britain was the first industrial the day (1964) and World of Sport - Class divisions - better off go to Tynemouth rather than • After WW2 car • More remote parts of the
nation - growth of factories (1965) Whitely Bay ownership doubled due country were opened up to
made it easier to organise • New tech in the 60s like colour TV, - Holiday industry grew rapidly - Blackpool had 2 million to the end of petrol holiday makers - by 1971
visitors each year rationing, more efficient cars make 63% of holiday
workers into teams + arrange multiple camera angles and slow-mo - Youth Hostel Association and Rambled Association production techniques transportation
matches replay made watching at home more experience increased membership - more Britons want to and rises in income • Large car-parks built - first
• Football association founded in enjoyable get out of the city • Car ownership doubled multi-storey car park open
1888 • England world cup in 1966 was watched - Butlin’s launched in 1937 - by 1939 there are 20 000 holiday between 1960 and 1970 in Blackpool in 1939
• Rise of mass transport and by 32 million camps in Britain, who cater for 30 000 visitors a week- from 5.6 million to 11.8 • Change in consumer habits
poorer families could go away for the first time million - rise of the ‘weekly shop’
communication made national
as people could load lots of
leagues possible Hooliganism groceries and food into
• Growth of radio (BBC), national • Increased violence at matches put Holidays during the war their car
newspapers and cinema people off going • Out of town supermarkets
- Gov. tried to prevent travel for leisure to free up roads more popular - ASDA the
newsreels increased interest in • Many clubs built up fences to keep fans - Railway companies banned from running extra trains during first one to open in 1964
football off pitches peak holiday hours • Motoring a very male
• Low ticket prices for matches • British rail cancelled ‘Soccer Special’ - This was ineffective - seaside holidays like ‘Wakes Week’ activity - 1975 only 29% of
drew large crowds which provided cheap travel to games, and - ‘Trip Week’ continued passports held by women
• Saturday half days gave men after several of their carriages were - Gov. tried (with some success) to promote ‘Holiday at
Home’, but mainly accepted that holidays were good for
time to play destroyed Planes
morale
• Attendance peaked in 1948-49 - Wartime institutions like POW camps, military barracks and - WW1 - rapid improvement in design of planes
at 41.2 million workers hostels would later be used for holiday camps. - 1918 - flight a commercially viable option for travel
- Flight expensive in interwar years - only rich could afford - plane
companies had to be propped up by the state:
Holidays after the war - 1924 Imperial Airways subsidised by the government to promote
image of British power
- An increase in disposable income like to more foreign - 1935 British airways starts as a private company, had to be rescued by
Effects of increased viewership state
holidays and caravan holidays
- By the end of the 70s ½ the population had been on a - Rapid growth in air transport after WW2 due to improvement in design,
- More advertising money - £1 million caravan holiday safety and the economy
in 1966, £16 million in 1976, £100 - No. of holidays abroad increased in the 70s due to cheap - Allowed Britons to enjoy holidays abroad
million by 1983 package holidays and an end to currency restrictions
- - Trains
Higher wages for footballers - wage By 1979 almost 2/3 had been on a package holiday using
- WW1 - state takes control of railways
caps scrapped, professional companies like Thomas Cook - most went to resorts in - 1921 railway act forces all rail companies to merge into 4
footballers can now earn huge sums Spain - Growth of railways encouraged ribbon development before cars and
through advertising - Foreign travel influenced British tastes - wine consumption buses
- ‘Amateurism’ declines in favour of doubled in the 60s and 70s, Italian and Greek food became - ‘Metro land’ - a series of suburbs north of London linked to the city
professional football more popular centre by the Metropolitan railway
- 1848 ‘big four’ merged into the nationalised British Railway
(denationalised in 1994-97)
5 Summary
Policy ambitions:
Thatcher’s aims:
• Belief in desirability of free markets over government intervention.
• Reduce inflation – running at
• Supply side policies
around 14% in 1979 (after periods
• Reducing power of trades unions
of 20% plus in late 1970s)
• Financial deregulation, e.g. building societies becoming profit making banks.
• Reduce budget deficit.
• Reducing higher rates of marginal income tax to increase incentives to work.
• Increase efficiency of economy
• Ending state subsidies for major manufacturing companies.
• Reduce power of trades unions
• Encouraging home ownership and share ownership.
Monetarism
Failures:
Overview:
• 1980/1981 budgets slashed government spending - riots
• Monetarism is the belief that inflation is caused
in several cities (incl. Brixton in London)
by the amount of money in the economy.
Success: • 1980-1981: manufacturing fell 14%
Thatcher aimed to reduce the money supply
• Inflation reduced to single figures by • 1980: inflation rose to 22% due to souring pay demands
through cuts to government spending and higher
1982, never rose above 9% for the rest • 1982: unemployment at 3 million
interest rates.
of the 80s • Unemployment benefits forced up government spending
• The theory was developed by Milton Friedman
• By 1983 monetarism was phased out in favor of more
• Introduced in Thatcher’s first term and had only
successful supply-side policies (tax cuts + deregulation)
been tested in Chile (then a military dictatorship)
• 1979 inflation 10.3%. 1990, 10.9% - no change
Deregulation
Failures:
• Big Bang led to riskier financial schemes -
Overview:
unscrupulous individuals made huge sums of
• The removal of rules and regulation - Thatcher
Success: money, this culture contributed to the financial crisis
hoped this would encourage innovation and
• Removal of exchange controls of 2008
competitiveness
fuelled greater overseas investment • British people became more accustomed to
(with profits returned to Britain) borrowing money - not what Thatcher wanted, she
• 1979 removal of exchange controls:
• Big Bang - City of London grew supported ‘careful savers’
Ended restriction on how many pounds could be
rapidly, became one of the major
converted and spend abroad
financial centres in the world Example of debt increases:
• Lawson Boom - economic growth - Private household debt increased from £16 billion
• 1986 ‘Big Bang’
reached 4-5% a year in late 80s in 1980 to £47 billion in 1989
Relaxed rules of the ownership and trading
- Mortgage debt rose from £43 billion to £235 billion
operations of banks
- By 2003, personal debt was £1.3 trillion - highest in
Europe.
Privatisation
Overview:
• Aimed to cut government expenditure,
Failures:
Success: reinvigorate the economy and incentivise
• By 1990 only 20% of shareholders were owned
• £19 billion raised - able to pay for tax cuts workers
by individuals - failure of popular capitalism
• Number of shareholders went front 3 million to 11 • Thatcher believe in popular capitalism -
• Distribution of shares was uneven - only 9% of
million between 1979-1990 everyone in society should own property
unskilled male workers owned any shares,
• Since the privatisation of the 10 state-owned and shares in companies
compared to half of all professional males
regional water authorities in 1989, the number of • Before 1983, British Aerospace, British
• Harold Macmillan compared it to ‘selling off the
customers at risk of low water pressure has fallen by Sugar and British Petroleum
family silver’
99%. • 1984 British Telecom sold
• Privatisation led to job losses - 200 000 jobs lost
• BT privatisation led to better customer service - • 1986 British Gas sold - raised £5.4
as the result of coal privatisation
previously customers had to wait 6 months for the billion, people were encouraged to buy
• Privatisation of British Rail has not improved the
installation of a BT line, today BT lines installed shares with the advertising campaign, ‘If
service - while government spending on rail has
within 15 minutes you see Sid, tell him’.
doubled since 1994
 Shares sold cheaply to ensure a
quick, wide take up
5 Trade Unions
Success:
• Unions became far more willing to
work with government after NUM
defeat
• Total number of TU members fell
from 13.5 million in 1979 to under 10
million in 1990
• Total number of working days lost to
strike action fell from 10.5 million in
1980-84 to 0.8 million in 1990-1994
• Government subsidies for failing
industries removed
Success:
• Tax cuts were a fiscal stimulus
which helped to increase disposable
income and consumer confidence.
This led to a rise in consumer
spending and economic growth.
• Decline in tax avoidance schemes -
wealthiest 5% paid as much tax in
1988 at the 40% rate as they did in
1978 at the 83% rate
• Tax cuts contributed to the Lawson
Boom - 4/5% growth in late 80s.
Overview:
• In the 1970s, days lost to trade union strikes
were at all-time highs.
• It was feared that poor industrial relations
and strikes were key factors in holding back
industry.
• Thatcher was determined to reduce the
power of trades unions and end industrial
disputes from costing British industry.
• Their power was reduced through a series of
Employment Acts:
• 1980 Act - ended ‘closed shop’ and sympathy
strikes
Failures:
• 1982 Act - unions could be sued for illegal
• Unemployment: Between 1974 and 1991 the number of
strike action
miners fell from 200 000 to 10 000
• 1984 Act - strikes had to be approved by a
• Communities in industrial areas were devastated; they
majority of union members in a secret ballot -
experienced mass unemployment, high crime rates and
Thatcher also begins building up coal reserves
emotional suffering
• Crime rate doubled during the 1980’s.
After the strike further employment acts in
1988,1989 and 1990 further weakened TU
The miner’s strike
• NUM Strike lasted 1984-1985
• Thatcher branded strikers “the enemy within”
• NUM leader Scargill made tactical errors that
undermined the strike:
- Strike began after winter - UK needed less
energy
- Scargill did not ballot members about strike
action
- His provocative methods angered the public -
he held 79% disapproval rating during the
strike
Taxation
Overview:
• Thatcher did not belief that taxation should be
used to take money from the rich to subsidise the
poor - 'The problem with socialism is that you
eventually run out of other people's money.’
• She thought this led to a lack of incentive to
work hard and bred dependence at the bottom of
the social scale
• Aimed to promote more investment, growth and
therefore government income through tax cuts Failures:
• 1980 BUDGET - top rate of income tax cut from • Increase of regressive taxes like VAT and National
83% to 60% Insurance Payments placed a higher burden on the
• 1988 BUDGET - basic rate of income tax from poor - increasing wealth inequality
29% to 25%, higher rate of income tax was cut to • Poll tax brought down Thatcher
40%. The tax cuts were so large, the 1988
budget is often referred to as the 'giveaway
budget’.
• Taxation cuts were subsidised by the discovery
of North Sea oil
• However - average tax bill rose by 6% between
1979 and 1990 due to increase in indirect
taxation
• 1979 VAT was increased from 8% to 15%