Grammar

Semester 2 2022-2023
 introduction

Grammar is important. By giving names to

the kinds of words and parts of a sentence, it
provides the terminology you need in your
study of the language. By making you aware of
the basic patterns of English sentences, it
helps you to develop a varied and interesting
style.
The Parts of Speech
 The Noun
 It is a word used to name a person, place,
thing, or idea.
1. proper nouns
2. common nouns
3. Abstract nouns
4. Concrete nouns
5. Collective nouns
 The pronoun
 It is a word used in place of a noun or of more
than one noun:
1. Personal pronouns
2. Reflexive pronouns
3. intensive pronouns
4. Relative pronouns
5. Interrogative pronouns
6. Demonstrative pronouns
7. Indefinite pronouns
 The Adjective
 It is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun
by telling what kind or how many, and
pointing out which one.
1. Articles
2. The same words as adjectives and pronouns
3. Nouns used as adjectives
 The Verb
 It is the word that expresses action or
otherwise helps to make a statement; it can
be actional or mental:
1. Transitive and intransitive
2. Linking verbs
3. Helping verb and verb phrase
 The Adverb
 It is a word used to modify a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb.
 Some nouns are used as adverbs.
 The Preposition
 It is a word used to show the relation of a
noun or pronoun to some word in the
sentence.
 The Conjunction
 It is the word that joins words or group of
words:
1. Coordinating conjunctions
2. Subordinating conjunctions
3. Coorelative conjunctions
 The interjection
 It is a word that expresses emotions and has
no grammatical relation to other words in the
sentence.
 Chapter two

The Part of Sentence

 Subject and Predicate
 A sentence consists of two parts: the subject
and predicate.
 The subject is the part about which something
is being said
 The predicate is the part that says something
about the subject.
 The Simple Subject
 It is the principale word or group of words in
the subject.
 The simple Predicate, or Verb
 The principale word or group of words in the
predicate is called simple predicate, or verb
 Compound subjects and verbs
 It consists of two or more subjects-verbs that
are joind by a conjunction.
 complements
• Some sentences express a completed meaning
by a subject and verb whereas in other
sentences may need more than a subject and
verb; these words beig added after the verb
are called complements.
 1.Direct and indirect objects
a. Direct objects recieve the action of the verb
or show the result of an action. They answer
the question of What or Whom.
b. Indirect objects of the verb precedes the
direct object and usually tell to whom or for
whom the action of the verb is done
 2. Objective Complement
• To complete their meaning, some action verbs
require an additional complement following
their objects. This additional complement is
called an objective complement because it
refers to the object; it may be a noun or an
adjective.
 Subject complement
• Predicate nominative: is a noun or pronoun
complementthat refers to the same person or
thing as the subject of the verb. It follows a
linking words.
• Predicate adjective: is an adjective
complement that modifies the subject of the
verb. It follows a linking verb.
 Exercise
1. Her nominating speech was both effective and
convincing.
2. That story sounds suspicious.
3. The mayor awarded firefighters Jekins a medal
of bravery.
4. Our softball team played an exciting game.
5. Lina looked calm during the debate.
6. Managing money is a challenging task.
7. our local radio gave Maria praise for her serious
work on social affairs.
1. A sentence with a compound subject and
compound verb.
2. A sentence with a direct object and indirect
object
3. A sentence with a direct object and objective
complement.
4. A sentence with a predicate nominative.
5. A sentence with a predicate adjective.a
 The Phrase
Types and Functions
 Defintion

• A phrase is a group words not containing a

verb and its subject.

• It is used as a single part of speech.

 Prepositional phrase
• Is a group of words beginning with a
preposition and usually ending with a noun or
pronoun.
• Prepositional phrases are usually used as
modifiers- as adjectives or adverbs, and
occasionally as a noun.
• As a noun:
---After the game will be great.
Here, the noun phrase functions as the subject
of the sentence.
• As an adjective: when it modifies a noun or
a pronoun.
---Atahrir Square has been the shrine of many
tourists.
----Most of the visitors like the local food.
• As an adverb:
When it modifies a verb, an adjective or another
adverb.
---The nurse nurses with care.
---Anna was faithful to her husband.
---Stephen drives the car fast in the highway.
 Participale Phrase
• It is a verb form that can be used as an
adjective.
• It can modify a noun or a pronoun.
-----teachers of composition, imitating the
athletic coach, conduct regular practice
seesions.
-----many of the articles written for
newspapers are based on news-wire reports.
-----i caught them robbing my money.
 Gerundive phrase
• It is a verb ending in ING that is used as a
noun.
• It can function as a subject, object of the verb,
object of the preposition.
-----In making any changes, please notify my
secretary.
------My sister enjoys eating turkish food.
------Eating an apple aday keeps the doctor
away.
 Infinitive Phrase
• It is a verb form that is preceded by to that
can be used as a modifier or a noun.
• It can be used as a noun, adjective, or an
adverb.
• As a noun:
--To be doesn’t need just money.
--No one dares to leave the meeting.
--My intention was to learn.
• As an adjective:
----Rassan is the candidate to succeed.

• As an adverb:
----My parents came to see the house.
 The appositive
• It is a noun or pronoun –often with modifiers-
set beside another noun or pronoun to explain
or identify it.
---my neighbour’s house, a luxorious modern
with a swimming pool, is the ambition of
every married man.
 Exercises
1. Juanita likes to take candid pictures of her
friends.
2. By inventing the telephone, Alexander
Graham Bell assured himself a place in
history.
3. Ruth’s secret ambition is to do research in
space.
4. Try to finish your work before dinner.
5. Believing you is difficult.
• Write sentences as follows:
1. With a prepositional phrase
2. With a participale phrase
3. With infinitive phrase
4. With gerund phrase
5. With appositive phrase
 Bracketing
• A rank scale consists of four units:
Sentence, Clause, Phrase, Word
• Form classes of word: Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb,
Preposition.
• Form classes phrase: Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase,
Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase, Prepositional Phrase,
Genetive Phrase.
• Function classes within the phrase: Modifier(M),
Head(H), Auxilary verb(Aux), and Main Verb(Mv).
• Function classes within the clause: Subject(S),
Object(O), Predicate(P), complement(C), adverbial(A).
 Examples
• Little Joana was sleeping.
• This job must be finished.
• The poor girl has seen seven ghosts.
• You must meet my wife.
• My train is leaving the station.
• Regular sport exercise keeps the body in
shape.
• The lady looks pretty in the weeding dress.
 Examples
1. His fur coat was covered with ice.
2. He left Victoria alone on the left bank of the
Seine.
3. Sergent Mark spoke frankly to his beloved wife.
4. Aljazeera is a free lectern for the voiceless
subalterns.
5. Lola was the luckiest girl to win the
competition.
 Clauses
The Function of Clauses
 A clause:
 Is a group of words with a subject and a verb,
and it is used as a part of a sentence.
 Clauses are classified according to
grammatical completeness.
1. Independent clause: expresses a complete
thought.
2. Dependent clause: doesnot express a
complete thought.
• The food was delicious, and the service was
great and satisfying.
• Since she was lost in the woods.
• Whatever you need.
• The telephone rings every Saturday night.
• Stephanie was fired from her job because she
wears Hijab.
 Adjective Clause
• Like a phrase, a subordinateclause acts as a
single part of speech.
• Adjective clause is a subordinate clause that
modifies a noun or a pronoun.
----she left her car, which she bought from her step-
father.
-----This is something which has unveiled the truth.
-----the man, whom i told you about, lives next
door.
• Adjective clauses often start with a relative
pronoun: Who, Whom, Whose, Which, or That.
These pronouns refere to a noun or a pronoun.
• A relative pronoun can:
1. Refer to the preceding noun or pronoun
2. Connect its clause with the rest of the sentence.
3. Perform a function within its own clause by serving
as: Subject, object, etc , of the subor clause.
• I suggest to choose a supplier whom we can
rely on.
• She is the kind of spokeswomen who has
never lagged behind in a debate.
• I have chosen the candidate, who is suitable
for the position.
• Brian bought the book that i told him about.
• Let’s see for whom the bell tools.
 Noun Clause
• Noun clause: may begin with an indefinite
relative pronoun that, what whatever, who,
which, whoever, whichever.

• It may also begin by an indefinite relative

adjective- whose, which, whatever- or an
indefinite relative adverb- where, when, how,
etc.
• The history of the words we use is what
determines their correct meaning.
• Whatever a clock maker says will be filled
with the jargon of trade of keeping time.
• Noun clause: can be predicate nominative,
object of the verb, object of preposition
1. This is what she said.
2. Do you know what the time is?
3. Here is a copy of what i wrote.
 Adverb clause
• An adverb clause illustrates one of the typical
adeverbial functions of telling how, when,
where, why, to what extent, or under what
conditions.
1. She travels by plane as if she were rich.
2. He goes to the gym whenever he is free.
3. They take her wherever they go.
4. He goes to the gym regularly because he is fat.
5. They play tennis if they have time.
 The Elliptical clause
• It is an incomplete adverb clause.
• There is a missing part within the clause.
1. I am generous than you (are).
2. While (i was) waiting for for the dentist, i
read a magazine.