Introduction to Structural Analysis

(Part 1)

Engr Rogel Exequiel Talagtag

Introduction to Structural Analysis

(Part 1)
This topic introduces the phases of activity necessary to design
and analyse a structure. A brief approach to design and
analyse a structure will first be introduced. The following
preliminary aspects of structural analysis will next be
discussed:

• classification of structural elements

• types of structures
• types of loadings acting on a structure
• idealization of structures and supports

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 What is a Structure?
A structure refers to a system of connected parts
used to support a load.

Examples of structures includes buildings, bridges,

towers, ship, aircraft frames, tanks and pressure
vessels.

Introduction To Common Structural Elements and/or Terminology

Used In A Typical Building Structure

Note: The connections of these elements and their positions in a building are shown
above. The slabs at each floor are designed to take certain loads (e.g. 4.5 kN/m2 )
and loads are distributed to the supporting beams. These loads from the beams are
then transferred to the columns. Finally, loads from the columns (i.e. from the upper
storey) are all carried by footing and the soil.

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The connection of structural members such as beams, columns
and slabs in a structural system allows for tall buildings to be
constructed. This picture shows the 421m tall 88-storey Jin
Mao Building in Shanghai.

A structure need not

always be a permanent
structure. It can also be a
temporary structure, such
as the retaining wall
system for the
construction of an
enormous underground
cavern using the open-cut
method.
This is another example
of a structural system
with connected parts,
namely the retaining
walls, struts and bracings.

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 Design Objectives
In designing a structure, the designers should aim to:

1. achieve overall economy in the design. (i.e. the structure shall not be
unduly expensive to construct.)

2. ensure safety of occupants by minimizing the possibility of a collapse and

if such a collapse were to occur, there is adequate robustness of the
structure and ample warning signs of the event.

3. make sure that the structure is functionable (serviceable). (i.e. under

the common operating condition, the people inside the structure is not
disturbed by the condition of the structure e.g. excessive cracks,
deflection, leakage, severe concrete deterioration etc)

4. make the structure reparable (i.e. structure still standing for repair work to
be done) in the case of a minor/moderate damage. This is especially the
case with structural damage due to moderate earthquake, for which the
demolition of the structure may be uneconomical and therefore
unnecessary.

5. ensure that the structure is asethetically pleasant.

Design consists of functional and structural aspects

• It involves the choice of

many different features
(e.g. a ‘big’ space for
activity).

• Each feature’s
requirement can be met
from a wide array of
possibilities (e.g. a
“columnless” design for a
‘big’ space activity
feature requires a deep
beam instead of a
shallower beam but with
more intermediate
columns)

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 Structural Design
Structural design is the selection of the arrangement and sizes of structural elements so that
the service loads may be carried without much discomfort to the users of the structure and has
adequate strength against collapse. It is the reverse of structural analysis (i.e. in structural
analysis, the geometry of element is known and the load that can be taken by the element is to
be determined. However, in design, the load to be taken by the element is known, but its
geometry is not known).
Structural design involves the following steps:
1. Planning (e.g. discussion with owner and architect on type of building which includes aspects of
geometry and function)
2. Preliminary structural configuration (e.g. supporting system of a building which includes
locations of beams, columns, walls etc.)
3. Preliminary member selection (e.g. geometry of each member - based on experience)

4.Establishment of load to be carried

5. Structural analysis (e.g. using computer to find the resulting actions; i.e flexure, shear, axial and
torsion forces and displacements)
6. Evaluation (e.g. identifying critical elements, cost and site constraints)

7. Design and redesign (e.g. to find the amount and arrangement of reinforcement, to check for
any need to revise the size)
8. Final decision

Step 1 (Planning) and Step 2 (Preliminary Structural

Configuration) involve:

Overall Preliminary e.g., the building height, floor area, footprint,

Design of layout, facade, etc.
Structure
e.g., frames, trusses or surface structure for roof
Select Suitable Type and other parts of building, etc.
Of Structure

e.g., wind load if the building is tall, snow load

Determine Types of if in cold country, earthquake load if prone to
Loading earthquake etc.
e.g., beams, columns, struts, etc.
Classify
Structural Elements
idealization on how the members are
Idealize Structure supported and connected together. e.g. pin
and Support or fix connection, overall framing of the
structure

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Step 3 (Preliminary member selection) involves:

Idealize structure
and support

The size of the respective members

Choose member size
are then chosen largely based on
experience and some quick
Determine loading
calculations.
In choosing the size of the Determine member
members, functional requirements forces and
and constraints (such as headroom displacements
e.g. ceiling height, building
entrances and height of flyover Need revision
of member size? YE
soffit) would have to be considered. S
NO
OK

Step 4 (Establishment of load to be carried) involves:

Idealize structure
and support

Once the dimensional requirements Choose member size

for a structure have been chosen, the
dead load that would act on the Determine loading
structure can be determined.
Determine member
forces and
displacements

Need revision
of member size?
YES
NO
OK

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Step 5 (Structural analysis) involves:

Idealize structure
and support

Choose member size

From the dead load and the Determine loading

prescribed live load, the forces in
the members and their Determine member
forces and
displacements are then estimated displacements
using the theory of structural
analysis to satisfy equilibrium Need revision
and compatibility conditions. of member size?
YES
NO
OK

Step 6 (Evaluation) and Step 7 (Redesign) involve:

Idealize structure
and support
The results of this analysis can
then be used to revise the Choose member size
members size according to the
stresses induced taking into Determine loading
consideration the cost, functional
requirements, constraints and Determine member
buildability. forces and
displacements
The design of a structure,
therefore, follows a series of Need revision
successive approximations in of members size?
YES
every cycle NO
OK

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 Approach to Design and Analyse a
Structure
When designing a structure to serve a specified function for
public or other uses, its safety, aesthetics and
serviceability must be accounted for, while taking into
consideration economic and environmental constraints.
This design process is both creative and technical and requires a
fundamental knowledge of material properties (e.g.
strength and modulus) and the laws of mechanics (e.g.
Hooke’s Law) which govern material response.
Once a preliminary design (e.g. architectural design) of a
structure is proposed, the structure must be analysed and
designed to ensure that it has the required strength and
rigidity.

Classification of Structural Elements

A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.
The load may consist of dead and live loads, which would induce four
main types of loadings in structural elements, namely:
1. Axial (Tension/Compression)
2. Bending
3. Torsion
4. Shear
It is, therefore, important to recognize (according to loadings) the
various types of elements composing a structure. These structural
elements can be classified into three components, mainly:
5. Tie rods/bracing struts [axial members]
6. Beams [shear and bending members]
7. Columns [combined axial and bending
members]
Beams and columns may also be subjected to torsion. Note that slabs
are modelled as short-depth beams.

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 1. Tie Rods / Bracing Struts
Structural members subjected to only axial force are often
referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the nature of this
load, these members are slender and are often chosen from
rods, bars, angles or channels

2. Beams
Beams are usually straight horizontal members mainly subjected to
bending and used primarily to carry vertical loads. They are
classified according to the way they are supported.

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When the cross section varies the beam is referred to as tapered or
haunched as shown

*large beam is also

known as girder.

Haunched Beam.
(Note: 1 in = 0.0254 m)

Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment;

however, if they are short, the internal shear force may become
quite large and this force may govern their design.
When a member is subjected to bending, the cross section is
most efficient when it is shaped as the I-beam shown below. It
could be noted that the moment, M could be effectively resisted
by the axial forces in the flanges while the web resist the applied
shear force, V.

This is ideal when material used for a beam is a metal such as

steel or aluminium as the material can be easily shaped into I-
beam and saving in material cost is substantial.

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When the beam is required to
have a very large span and the
loads applied are rather large,
the beam may take the form
of a plate girder*.

The plate girder is fabricated

by using a large plate for the
web and welding or bolting
plates to its ends for flanges.

*large beam is also known as

girder.

Concrete beams generally have rectangular or T cross sections

since it is easy to construct this shape directly in the field.

Beams made from timber may be sawn from a solid piece of

wood or laminated. Laminated beams are constructed from solid
sections of wood, which are fastened together using high-
strength glues.

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3. Columns.

Members that are generally vertical and

resist axial compressive loads are
referred to as columns

Tubes and wide-flange I cross sections

are often used for metal columns, and
columns with circular, rectangular or
square cross sections with reinforcing
rods are usually made of concrete.

Mostly, columns are subjected to both

an axial load and a bending moment.
These members are referred to as beam
columns (in structural steel design)
and columns (in structural concrete
design)

Types of Structures
The combination of structural elements and the materials e.g.
steel or reinforced concrete or both, from which they are
composed is referred to as a structural system. Each system is
constructed of one or more of the following five basic types
of structures:

1. Trusses
2. Cables
3. Arches
4.
5. Frames
Surface
Structu
res

12
 1. Trusses
When the span of a structure is required to be large and its
depth is not an important criterion for design, a truss may be
selected.

Trusses consist of pin-jointed slender elements, usually

arranged in triangular fashion. The members of the trusses are
primarily subjected to only tension or compression forces and
external loads are applied at joints. There are two types of
trusses:
1. Planar truss [2D]
2. Space truss [3D]

Planar (2D) trusses are composed of members that lie in the

same plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support,
whereas space (3D) trusses have members extending in three
dimensions and are suitable for skylight roofs (e.g. Esplanade)
and towers (e.g. Eiffel Tower).

One of the primary advantages of a truss, compared to a beam,

is that it uses less material to support a given load, therefore
reducing the material cost & dead load.

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Trusses are suitable for structures such as stadium where column free
large span are essential to prevent obstruction of spectators view.

2. Cables
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.
They are commonly used to support bridges and building
roofs.
Compared to a cable, truss will require added costs for
construction and increased depth as the span increases. The
use of cables is limited only by their sag, weight, and
methods of anchorage.

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 Cables are commonly used to support bridges. When used for this
purpose, the cable has an advantage over the beam and truss. Due to
long span in bridge, the beams and truss used have to be very deep
and is uneconomical.

3. Arches
Arches are usually rigid and carry their loads in axial compression,
since it has a reverse curvature to that of the cable. It must be
rigid, in order to maintain its shape, and this results in secondary
loadings involving shear and moment, which must be considered
in its design. Unlike beam, moment and shear in arches are much
smaller compared to the axial compression. On the other hand, in
beam, the axial compression is practically negligible.

UDL UDL

M0
V0
A RAX RBX B

RAY RBY

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Arches are frequently used in bridges, building structures, dome
roofs and for openings in masonry walls.

4. Frames
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams
and columns that are either pin or fixed connected.
Unlike for trusses, the loading on a frame can be applied on the
members, therefore causing bending of its members. Frame
system are also more rigid than truss system as the joints are able
to resist moments.
The strength of such a frame
is derived from the moment
interactions between the
beams and the columns at the
rigid joints.

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 P P

B C B C
Bending Moment

Bending Moment

Frame 1 Frame 2

A D A D

In the case of the frame 1 where joints B and C are pinned, the maximum
bending moment along beam BC is larger as when compared with the frame
2 where joints B and C are fixed. Therefore, for the same load, a smaller
beam would be required for frame 2. On the contrary, a larger column would
be required for frame 2 since it is subject to additional moments at B and C.
The benefit of using a frame, therefore, depend on the efficiency gained in
using smaller beam sizes versus increasing the size of the columns due to
the “beam-column” action caused by bending at the joints.

Figure shows a typical

frame structure. The
frame structures of many
concrete and steel
buildings are similar to
this.

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5. Surface Structures
A surface structure is made from a material having a very small
thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this
material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-
inflated structure.
Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as
reinforced concrete or flexible material such as fabric or metal
sheets.

Surface structures may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or

hyberbolic paraboloids, and are referred to as thin plates or
shells.
These structures act like cables or arches since they support
loads primarily by tension or compression, with very little
bending.

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 Types of Loads acting on Structures

Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been

defined, the load that the structure must support can be
determined. A structure is generally subjected to several types
of loads which may be broadly classified into two categories,
namely:

1. Dead Loads
2. Live Loads

Dead Loads

Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural

members and the weights of any objects that are permanently
attached to the structure. For a building, the dead loads
include the weights of the columns, beams, girders, the floor
slab, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures
and other miscellaneous attachments.

The dead loads of the structure can be determined from the

sizes and unit weights of the structural elements and other
permanent attachment. Ordinarily, these unit weights are
published in standards such as BS and ASCE. For unit
weights that are not published, the dead loads may have to be
estimated or obtained from the material suppliers.

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Live Loads

Live loads can vary both in their magnitude and location.

They may be caused by objects temporarily placed on a
structure, moving vehicles or natural forces. The live loads
can be categorised as follows:

1. Building Loads
2. Bridge Loads
3. Wind Loads
4. Snow Loads
5. Earthquake Loads
6. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
7. Other Natural Loads

Building Loads

The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to uniform

live loads which depend on the purpose for which the building
is designed. These loadings are generally tabulated in the
codes such as ASCE and BS. For buildings having very large
floor areas, the code may allow for a reduction in loading
since it is unlikely that the prescribed live load will occur
simultaneously throughout the entire structure at any time.

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Bridge Loads

The design live loadings for highway and railroad bridges are
given in standards such as American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and
American Railway Engineering Association (AREA). The
codes provides the wheel loadings and spacing for different
types of trucks and trains. Unlike building loads where the
loads are uniformly distributed, bridge loads are placed within
critical regions of the bridge to calculate the maximum live-
load induced in the members. Also since vehicles are in
constant motion, any bouncing that occurs would result in an
impact of the weights on the bridge. To account for this, an
impact factor is also specified in the above codes.

Wind Loads

When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic

energy is converted into potential energy of pressure, which
causes a wind loading. The effect of wind on a structure
depends upon the density and velocity of the air, the angle of
incidence of the wind, the shape and stiffness of the structure
and the roughness of its surface.

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Snow Loads

In some regions, roof loading due to snow can be quite severe,

and therefore protection against possible failure due to snow
load is of primary concern. Design loadings typically depend
on the building’s general shape and roof geometry, wind
exposure and location.

Earthquake Loads

Earthquake produce loadings on a structure through its

interaction with the ground and the response characteristics of
the structure. These loadings result from the structure’s
distortion caused by the ground’s motion and the lateral
resistance of the structure.

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 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular

materials, the pressure developed by these loadings becomes
an important criterion for their design. Examples of such types
of structures include tanks, dams, ships and retaining walls.
Here, the laws of hydrostatics and soil mechanics are applied
to define the intensity of the loadings on the structure.

Other Natural Loads

Several other types of live loads may also have to be

considered in the design of a structure, depending on its
location or use. These include the effect of blast, temperature
changes and differential settlement of the foundation.

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 Idealization of structures and supports
Very often, due to complexity of structures, an exact analysis can
never be carried out and estimates always have to be made of the
loadings and the strength of the materials composing the
structure. Furthermore, points of application of the loadings,
onto the structures, must also be estimated. It is therefore,
important to model and idealize a structure and its support
connections to perform a structural analysis of the structure and
determine the forces and displacements in the members.

**Idealization of structures and supports is a wide topic which

will be covered in detail in RC and steel structure design
modules. This topic is only briefly introduced to you in this
module (CE2155) as some understandings of this topic is
necessary for structural analysis .

Idealization of Support Connections

Structural members are joined together in various ways
depending on the design. The three types of connections
most often specified are the pin connection, roller support
and the fixed joint. The connections are categorized
according to the number of reaction components the support
or joint can be subjected to. Accordingly, in planar structures
(2D),
1. Roller - (can only be subjected to) one reaction force
2. Pin - two reaction forces
3. Fixed - two reaction forces and one moment

24
The figures above show the actual connections which may be idealized
as pin-connected support or joint which allows some freedom for slight
rotation. There are two reaction forces acting at the supports or joints.
Note that these pin supports or joints cannot resist moment, and in
analysis the moment is assumed as zero.

The figure above shows the actual connection which may be

idealized as roller support in which some freedom for slight
rotation and horizontal displacement is also allowed. In roller
support, only one reaction force which acts perpendicular to
the surface at the point of contact is possible.

25
The beam and column connection for steel or concrete
structures shown above allows for “beam-column” action
caused by bending at the joints. The connection can
therefore be idealized as fixed joints which assumes that no
relative rotation takes place between the connected
members. The reactions acting at the joints consist of one
moment and two forces.

Idealization of Structures
Having understood the ways in which the support
connections may be idealized, the structure can then be
idealized to facilitate the analysis and determination of
forces and displacements in the structure.

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 Example

To idealize the jib crane shown, the thickness of the two

main members are first neglected and the joints at A and
B are assumed to be rigid, that is fixed. The load on the
hook is represented by a single concentrated force, F.

Example

The angle connection at A is able to withstand two component

of reaction while at B, only one component of reaction, that is
perpendicular to the support, is possible. Both connection
would allow for slight rotation. Therefore, connections A and
B are idealized as pin and roller respectively. The beams
thickness can be neglected since it is small in comparison with
the length. The structure is idealized as a simply-supported
beam.

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 Example
of steel
structure

Beams and girders are often used to support building floors. A girder
(primary beam) is the main load-carrying element of the floor whereas
the smaller elements having a shorter span and connected to the girders
are called the beams (secondary beam). Often the loads that are applied
to a beam or girder are transmitted to it by the slab that is supported by
the beam or girder. In the above structures, the joints can be assumed to
be pin and/or roller connected to the columns. The structure can then be
idealized by neglecting the thickness of the beam. For pin/roller
connections, the lines at connection do not meet whereas for fixed
connections, the lines would be drawn to meet.

Example of RC structure

In reinforced concrete construction, the beams are represented by

double lines. These systems are generally all fixed connected and
therefore the members are drawn to the supports. The lines for the
beams are dashed because they are below the slab.

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 Example of timber structure

In the above structure which represent a beam-wall construction,

the roof deck is supported by wood joists, which deliver the load to
a masonry wall. In idealizing the timber structure, the joists can be
assumed to be simply supported on the wall, that is the connection
allows for slight rotation. Note that the lines representing the wood
joists do not meet the masonry wall.

Example

The figure shows the typically idealized floor plan and side elevation
of a building. The simplification due to the idealization allows the
effort to analyze the structure to be greatly reduced. The structure
can now be analyzed in sections with less complexity.

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END

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