Structural Design

WIND
 How is wind created
• Wind is created by uneven heating of the earths surface by the sun.
• Because the earths surface is made up of different types of land and
water, the earth absorbs the suns heat at different rates.
• One example of this uneven heating is the daily wind cycle.
• Gases move from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
• And the bigger the difference between the pressures, the faster the
air will move from the high to the low pressure.
• That rush of air is the wind we experience.
• Wind is the part of weather we experience all the time but why
does it actually happen? The air will be still one day , and the next,
powerful gusts of wind can knock down trees. What is going on
here?
• The main causes of wind is a little surprising. Its actually temperature.
• More specifically, its differences in temperature between different
areas.
• How would temperature differences make the wind blow? The gases
that make up our atmosphere do interesting things as the
temperatures change.
• When gases warm up. The atoms and molecules move faster, spread
out, and rise
• The sun warms up the air, but it does so unevenly because the sun
hits different parts of the earth at different angles, and because earth
has oceans, mountains, and other features, some places are warmer
than others.
• Because of this we get pockets of warm air and cold air.
 How to measure wind
• Wind speed is normally measured by a cup anemometer consisting
of three of four cups, conical or hemispherical in shape, mounted
symmetrically about a vertical spindle.
• The wind blowing into the cups cause the spindle to rotate.
• Measuring wind speed and direction is now done at least three
ways; mechanically (cup anemometer with a vane), with
ultrasonics or with Laster- based devices. There are variations to
each.
• Mechanical sensors, for instance, use moving parts and still
connect to data recording devices.
• The anemometer uses spinning cups for wind speed and vane for
vector changes. These physically move with changes in the wind
and give accurate reading of speed and direction.
• Ultrasonic sensors functions without moving parts.
• On a typical sonic anemometer, a transducer sends a pulse of
ultrasonic sound from a north facing side of the sensor.
• A microprocessor measures the time it take to travel to south
transducer.
• The wind speed is calculated from the time it takes the ultrasound to
travel to the opposite transducer.
• Measurement times are affected by the wind speed and direction
blowing along the line between the transducer.
• Without moving parts, measurement is said to be immediate and
precise.
 How does wind movement affect structures
• Wind forces are complex. The effect of wind on a building
depends on the interaction of many variables.
• Natural variables include wind speed, Wind height, ground
surface features and the properties of the air.
• Building variables include the shape ,location, and physical
properties of structures.
• Together, these variables create differences in pressure that push
and pull on the exterior surfaces of buildings.
• Uplift occurs as wind flows over a roof similar to the effect on
airplanes wings, wind flow under a roof pushes upward while
wind flow over a roof pulls upward.
• Titling or sliding occurs when horizontal wind pressures create a
shearing action along the foundation.
• Overturning or rotating off the foundation, can also result from
shearing action when a structure is unable to tilt or slide off the
foundation.
• The weakest link in the building envelope is the point most likely to
fail in a windstorm.
• When a hurricane or tornado strikes, a home is only as strong as the
weakest link.
• Wind forces can break the buildings load path or punch a hole in
the building envelope.
• Sometimes the actual force of high winds can causse a door or
window to break open.
• Other times near by debris can be picked up in the wind and
projected against the building envelope.
• Roof shingles from a neighbor’s home, branches from fallen trees, or
unsecured yard furniture are examples of potentially dangerous
wind borne debris.
• Once wind forces create an opening in the building envelope, the
dangers of structural failure greatly increase.
• Water intrusion is another damaging effect of wind-driven rain.
• If the building is in an unobstructed location or within 1500 feet of
open water, you are more susceptible to damages caused by high
winds.
Proper landscaping may help to shield homes and divert winds
around the building.
Risks developed on structure because of wind
• In some areas, wind load is an important consideration when
designing and building a buildings or other structure .
• wind load is the load, in pounds per square foot, placed on the
exterior of a structure by wind. This will depend on;
 Uplift load- wind flow pressures that create a strong lifting effect,
much airplane wings. Wind flow under a roof pushes upward.
 Shear load – horizontal wind pressure that could cause racking of
walls.
 Lateral – horizontal pushing and pulling pressure on walls that could
off the foundation or overturn.
• High wind pressures can collapse doors and windows, rip off roofing
and roof decking and destroy gable and walls.
Roof overhangs and other features that tend to trap air beneath them,
resulting in high uplift forces, are particularly susceptible to damage.
Case study on design of multistoried RCC
buildings with or without shear wall
• From the past records of earthquake, there is increase in the
demand of earthquake resisting building which can be fulfilled by
providing the shear wall systems in the buildings.
 The case study showed
 It is observed that in the buildings construction building with
shear was at corner location gives minimum drift and minimum
displacement.
 From all the analysis and design, it is observed that in G+38
storey building, constructing building with shear wall at corner is
economical as compared with bare frame structures.
 Size of members like column can be reduced economically in case
of structure with shear wall as compared to the same structure
without shear wall.
 Variation in column size at different floors in modes 1 affects the
storey drift while in case of model 3 it does not affect the storey
drift due to the presence of shear wall,
 More carpet area will be available in the building as the sizes of
columns are reduced when shear wall is provided,
 Simulation of wind effects on structures
• When the wind affects the side surface of the building, the
wind pressure is transmitted to it.
• In this case, in general, the windward side of the building
is stretched, horizontal wind load caused the high-rise
building to bend according to the cantilever scheme.
• Building form affects wind by altering its speed and flow
patterns, and can be used to create desirable wind
conditions around the building.
• Wind, in turn, exerts load on the building, which can be
reduced with aerodynamic forms and resisted with
structural systems.
 What are the main analysis as per Ethiopian standard
• Wind analysis is the evaluation of the dynamic effect of wind on a
structure and is used for optimizing designs to best mitigate these
effects.
• In recent years, Ethiopia’s construction sectors were boost up due to
modernization and industrialization.
• Wind speed data is prerequisite in designing of high raise buildings. In
Ethiopia, the most common practices to adopt design
recommendations from European codes of practice which can be
quite inappropriate due to the differences in climatical and
topographical conditions.
• To fore ground the present condition in Ethiopia , this paper tried to
obtain the basic wind speed for different stations
• . The basic wind speed data which is obtained from 159 stations are
then compared with the design wind speed of 22m/s according to
ECS145 ,2015.
• Consequently, a basic wind speed zone map was prepared . The map
was developed based on the basic windspeeds evaluated from the
annual maximum records collected from each station.
• Hydrognomon pythia-statistical analysis was done for different
probability distributions. After their calculation the best data was
chosen using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test.
• The findings are clearly showing that the magnitude of the
operating basic wind speed was increased in 14-150% from the
constant of 22m/s .
• By using best fitted probability distribution methods of each
stations, obtained result are ranging from 25to 55m/sin Ethiopia.
 Design provision of wind effect on structures
as per Ethiopian standards
• Although the procedures described in the various codes for the
estimation of wind loads usually vary in detail, most of them are
based on the same basic relationship between the wind speed V and
the dynamic pressure q induced on a flat surface normal to the wind
flow, which can be obtained by applying Bernoulli’s principle and is
expressed as
q=1/2 P
• In which p is the mass density of the air. Using the unit weight of air
of 12.02N/ for the standard atmosphere and expressing the wind
speed V in m/s , the dynamic pressure q in N/ is given by;
q=1/2()=0.613
• The wind speed V to be used in the determination of the design
loads on a structure depends on its geographical location and can be
obtained from meteorological data for the region .
• To account for the variation in wind speed with the height and the
surroundings in which a structure is located and to account for the
consequences of the failure of structures;
=0.613I
• In which is the velocity pressure at height z in N/ ; V is the basic
wind speed in m/s ; I is the importance factor ; is the velocity
pressure exposure coefficient; is the topographic factor; and is the
wind directionality factor. The importance factor I accounts for
hazard to human life and damage to property in the event of failure
of the structure, the values of I to be used for estimating wind loads
for the various categories of buildings are known.
The velocity pressure exposure coefficient is given;
• In which z=height above ground in meters; gradient height in
meters;α =power law coefficient. The constants and depend on
the obstructions on the terrain immediately surrounding the
structure.
• Increase in wind speed due to abrupt changes in topography, such
as isolated hills and steep cliffs. For structures located on or near
the tops of such hills, the value of should be determined using the
procedure specified in the code.
• For other structures =1. The wind directionality factor, , takes into
account the reduced probability of maximum winds coming from
the direction that is most unfavorable for the structure, this factor
is used only whin wind loads are applied in combination with other
types of loads .
• structures subjected to such load combinations, the values of Kd
should be obtained from the code Standard.
• For structures subjected only to wind loads, Kd ¼ 1.The external
wind pressures to be used for designing the main framing of
structures are given by;
Pz= ¼ qzGCp for windward wall
ph =¼ qhGCp for leeward wall; sidewalls; and roof
• In which h ¼ mean roof height above ground; qh ¼ velocity
pressure at height h (evaluated by substituting z ¼ h ); pz ¼ design
• wind pressure at height z above ground; ph ¼ design wind pressure
at mean roof height h; G ¼ gust effect factor; and Cp ¼ external
pressure coefficient.
• The gust effect factor, G, is used to consider the loading effect of
wind turbulence on the structure.
• For a rigid structure, whose fundamental frequency is greater than or
equal to 1 Hz., G ¼ 0:85. For flexible structures, the value of G should
be calculated using the equations given in the code Standard.
• The values of the external pressure coefficients, Cp, based on wind
tunnel and full-scale tests, have been provided in the code Standard
for various types of structures.
• The external wind pressure varies with height on the windward wall
of the structure but is uniform on the leeward wall and the sidewalls.
• Note that the positive pressures act toward the surfaces, whereas
the
negative pressures, called suctions, act away from the surfaces of the
structures.
• Once the external wind pressures have been established, they are
combined with the internal pressures to obtain the design wind
pressures.
• With the design wind pressures known, we can determine
the corresponding design loads on members of the structures by
multiplying the pressures by the appropriate tributary areas of the
members.