TOYOTA UK

Basic
Electricity
Mike Wheeler
TOYOTA MOTOR MANUFACTURING (UK) LTD
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TOYOTA MOTOR MANUFACTURING (UK) LTD
Motor & Calculations
Output -
DC Motor Types and Characteristics
Three–Phase Induction Motors
The incoming 3 phase supply lines are connected to the ‘1’
(one) terminals whilst the ‘2’ terminals are used to connect
the shorts as required. Not all motors have all 6 ends of the
stator connections available in the motor terminal box – the
interconnection details will be given on the motor plate.
Generally, larger motors are almost always supplied
connected in Delta.
Rotor The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic circuit.
In the basic induction motor, a “squirrel cage” rotor is used
consisting of a stack of steel laminations with evenly spaced
conductor slots around the circumference. The laminations are
stacked together to form a rotor core. Aluminium is die-cast in
the slots of the rotor core to form a series of conductors around
the perimeter of the rotor. The conductor bars are mechanically
and electrically connected with end rings. The rotor core mounts
on a steel shaft to form a rotor assembly. The rotating stator field
induces a current in the conductor bars, which sets up a
magnetic field in the rotor. Interaction between the stator and
rotor fields causes the rotor to rotate in the same direction as the
stator field, but at a slower speed
DC Motors Controls
The diagram shows a manual faceplate starter for a shunt motor. Bare copper
contacts are connected to current-limiting resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4.

Conducting arm 1 sweeps across the contacts when it is pulled to the right by
means of insulated handle 2.

In the position shown, the arm touches dead copper contact M and the motor
circuit is open.

As the handle is drawn to the right, the conducting arm first touches fixed
contact N.
The supply voltage Es immediately causes full field current Ix to flow, but the
armature current / is limited by the four resistors in the starter box. The motor
begins to turn and, as the back emf Eo builds up, the armature current gradually
falls.

When the motor speed ceases to rise any more, the arm is pulled to the next
contact, thereby removing resistor R1 from the armature circuit. The current
immediately jumps to a higher value and the motor quickly accelerates to the
next higher speed.
When the speed again levels off, we move to the next contact, and so forth, until the
arm finally touches the last contact.

The arm is magnetically held in this position by a small electromagnet 4, which is in

series with the shunt field. If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted, or if the field
excitation should accidentally be cut, the electromagnet releases the arm, allowing it
to return to its dead position, under the pull of spring 3.

This safety feature prevents the motor from restarting unexpectedly when the supply
voltage is re-established.
Since only one of the windings needs to be reversed, the armature winding is
typically used because its terminals are readily accessible at the brush rigging.
The armature receives its current through the brushes, so that if their polarity is
changed, the armature's polarity will also be changed.

The figure shows a DC series motor that is connected to a reversing motor

starter. In this diagram the armature's terminals are marked Al and A2 and the
field terminals are marked S1 and S2.
When the forward motor starter is energized:

a) The top contact identified as F closes so the A1 terminal is connected to the

positive terminal of the power supply and the bottom F contact closes and
connects terminals A2 and S1

b) Terminal S2 is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply. When

the reverse motor starter is energized, terminals A1 and A2 are reversed. A2
is now connected to the positive terminal

c) Notice that S2 remains connected to the negative terminal of the power

supply terminal. This ensures that only the armature's polarity has been
changed and the motor will begin to rotate in the opposite direction
The normally closed (NC) set of R contacts connected in series with the forward push
button, and the NC set of F contacts connected in series with the reverse push button.
These contacts provide an interlock that prevents the motor from being changed from
forward to reverse direction without stopping the motor.

The circuit can be explained as follows:

a) When the forward push button is depressed, current will flow from the stop push
button through the NC R interlock contacts, and through the forward push button to
the forward motor starter (FMS) coil
b) When the FMS coil is energized, it will open its NC contacts that are connected in
series with the reverse push button. This means that if someone depresses the
reverse push button, current could not flow to the reverse motor starter (RMS) coil
c) If the you want to reverse the direction of the rotation of the motor, you will need to
depress the stop push button first to de-energize the FMS coil, which will allow the NC
F contacts to return to their NC position
d) You can see that when the RMS coil is energized, its NC R contacts that are
connected in series with the forward push button will open and prevent the current
flow to the FMS coil if the forward push button is depressed
Braking
When a large dc motor is coupled to a heavy inertia load, it may take an hour or
more for the system to come to a halt.

Such a lengthy deceleration time is often unacceptable and, under these

circumstances, a braking torque is required to ensure a rapid stop.

One way to brake the motor is by simple mechanical friction.

A more elegant method consists of circulating a reverse current in the armature, so

as to brake the motor electrically using regenerative braking
Consider a shunt motor whose field is directly connected to a source Es, and whose
armature is connected to the same source by means of a double-throw switch. The
switch connects the armature to either the line or to an external resistor R.

When the motor is running normally, the direction of the armature current I1 and the
polarity of the back emf Eo are as shown in the first diagram on the next page.
Neglecting the armature IR drop, Eo is equal to Es
If the switch is suddenly opened the motor continues to turn, but its speed will
gradually drop due to friction and windage losses.

On the other hand, because the shunt field is still excited, induced voltage Eo
continues to exist, falling at the same rate as the speed.

The motor is now a generator whose armature is open-circuit

When the switch is closed on the second set of contacts the armature is
suddenly connected to the external resistor. Voltage Eo will immediately produce
an armature current I2.

However, this current flows in the opposite direction to the original current /1

It follows that a reverse torque is developed whose magnitude depends upon I2.

The reverse torque brings the machine to a rapid, but very smooth stop
In practice, resistor R is chosen so that the initial braking current is about twice
the rated motor current. The initial braking torque is then twice the normal torque
of the motor.

As the motor slows down, the gradual decrease in Eo produces a corresponding

decrease in I2. Consequently, the braking torque becomes smaller and smaller,
finally becoming zero when the armature ceases to turn. The speed drops quickly
at first and then more slowly, as the armature comes to a halt.
Brake Controls

Many motors are fitted with some ‘brake’ device, to slow the motor to a stop and / or
to hold the motor in place. The brakes may be electrical or mechanical.

Electric Brakes. Electric brakes may operate by regeneration and/or DC injection

(both are examples of dynamic braking). In the latter case, DC is ‘injected’ to the
stator coils in place of the AC supply. This generates a fixed magnetic field, rapidly
slowing and locking the motor in place. Whilst DC injection is useful for rapidly
stopping a motor, it is unsuitable for holding a motor in a given position.
Mechanical Brakes. Typically a pad or shoe type brake acting on a brake
disc fitted to the motor shaft. These are ‘fail safe’ as they are operated and held
on by powerful springs. When the brake coil is energised the friction element is
pulled away from the armature plate and the motor is able to rotate. A rectifier
is used to convert alternating current to direct current to operate the brake coil.
Correct adjustment of the brake clearance is critical.
Thermal Overload Device

A thermal protector is designed to prevent a motor from getting too hot, causing
possible fire or damage to the motor. They are usually a bi-metallic strip element, held
at one end that is heated directly by the passage of the main current. As its
temperature rises, the element bends due to the unequal expansion of the two metals
and this movement is used to trip or operate the contacts.

The thermal overload relies on the heating effect of a current plus time. If the motor
takes a high current over a short time (e.g. a start up), the thermal overload will not
trip. If excess current flows for a longer time then the overload will trip.

Never bypass a protector because of nuisance tripping. This is generally an indication

of some other problem, such as overloading or lack of proper ventilation. Only
manual-reset thermal overloads should be used in application where the driven load
could cause personal injury if the motor should restart unexpectedly. Otherwise the
overload device should be “linked” to the control circuit of the motor.
Magnetic Overload Device

An electromagnetic coil is used to lift an iron plunger or armature to release a

latch that secures a closed contact.

The magnetic force of the coil is proportional to the current flowing.

At a pre-determined current, the plunger will operate the tripping mechanism.

When a motor’s start current is high so the overload could trip on starting.

To remedy this an oil dashpot is used to slow down the movement of the
plunger enabling starting currents to be ignored, but continuous excess currents
will trip the overload contacts.
Thermistors

Thermistors are semiconductor devices whose resistance varies with temperature

and which can operate on AC or DC systems. Thermistors with a Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC) of resistance are used in motors to provide
temperature protection.

Thermistor protection units continuously monitor the temperature of the motor by

means of the PTC thermistors embedded in the machine windings. If the nominal
operating temperature of the probes is reached, the probes convert the rapid
increase in resistance into a switching function that can be used to open the control
circuit or signal a fault.

Thermistor protection relays provide additional motor protection and should be used
to supplement a conventional current sensing overload relay.
Genorators
3 - PHASE
Introduction to Three-Phase Power

ECE 441 58
Typical Transformer Yard

ECE 441 59
Basic Three-Phase Circuit

ECE 441 60
What is Three-Phase Power?

• Three sinusoidal voltages of equal amplitude and frequency out of

phase with each other by 120°. Known as “balanced”.
• Phases are labeled A, B, and C.
• Phases are sequenced as A, B, C (positive) or A, C, B (negative).

ECE 441 61
Three-Phase Power

ECE 441 62
Definitions

• 4 wires
• 3 “active” phases, A, B, C
• 1 “ground”, or “neutral”
• Color Code OLD NEW
• Phase A Red Brown
• Phase B Yellow Black
• Phase C Blue Grey
• Neutral White or Gray Blue

ECE 441 63
Phasor (Vector) Form for abc
Vc=Vm/+120°

Va=Vm/0°

Vb=Vm/-120°

ECE 441 64
Phasor (Vector) Form for abc
Vc=Vm/+120°

Va=Vm/0°

Vb=Vm/-120°
Note that Kirchoff Voltage Law applies ....
Va+Vb+Vc=0
ECE 441 65
Three-Phase Generator

• 2-pole (North-South) rotor turned

by a “prime mover”
• Sinusoidal voltages are induced in
each stator winding

ECE 441 66
How are the sources connected?

• (a) shows the sources (phases)

connected in a wye (Y).
• Notice the fourth terminal, known
as Neutral.
• (b) shows the sources (phases)
connected in a delta (∆).
• Three terminals

ECE 441 67
Look at a Y-Y System

ECE 441 68
Definitions

• Zg represents the internal generator

impedance per phase
• Zl represents the impedance of the line
connecting the generator to the load
• ZA,B,C represents the load impedance per
phase
• Zo represents the impedance of the
neutral conductor

ECE 441 69
Look at the Line and Load Voltages

ECE 441 70
 VAB  VAN  VBN
Line Voltages VBC  VBN  VCN Phase Voltages

VCA  VCN  VAN

ECE 441 71
Vector addition to find VAB=VAN-VBN
-VBN

ECE 441 72
Using the Tip-to-Tail Method

-VBN

VΦ = Line-to-Neutral, or
Phase Voltage

VAB = VAN – VBN = √3VΦ

ECE 441 73
Conclusions for the Y connection

• The amplitude of the line-to-line voltage is equal to √3 times the

amplitude of the phase voltage.
• The line-to-line voltages form a balanced set of 3-phase voltages.
• The set of line-to-line voltages leads the set of line-to-neutral (phase)
voltages by 30°.

ECE 441 74
Summary

ECE 441 75
Look at the Delta-Connected Load

ECE 441 76
I AB  I 0
I BC  I   120
I CA  I 120

ECE 441 77
 I aA  I AB  I CA
Line Currents I bB  I BC  I AB Phase Currents

I cC  I CA  I BC

ECE 441 78
Vector Addition to find IaA=IAB-ICA

-ICA

ECE 441 79
Using the Tip-to-Tail Method

-ICA

IaA = √3IΦ/-30°

ECE 441 80
Conclusions for the Delta Connection

• The amplitude of the line current is equal to √3 times the phase

current.
• The set of line currents lags the phase currents by 30°.

ECE 441 81
 Three-phase power
Three single phase systems?
3 nodes
Three single phase systems
6 wires
Each neutral carries full load current
Each neutral carries full load current
Each single phase circuit delivers
instantaneous power that varies at 2ω. Large
generators & motor loads vibrate.
Or one three-phase system?
1 node
One three-phase system
4 wires; capital savings!
Neutral carries little or no current and can
therefore be much smaller; capital savings!
Neutral carries little or no current, therefore
has little losses; operational savings!
We will show that three phase circuits deliver
constant instantaneous power; large
generators and motors run smoothly.
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