Pituitary gland & its relation to the

hypothalamus
• The pituitary gland also called the hypophysis (a
small gland)
• 1 cm in diameter, 0.5-1 gm in weight
• Connected to hypothalamus by the pituitary/
hypophysial stalk
• PG is divided into two distinct portions:
• Anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis
• Posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis
• Between them, a small avascular zone → pars
intermedia
 Pituitary hormones
• 6 hormones from AP play major roles in the
control of metabolic functions throughout the
body
• Growth hormone
• Adrenocorticotropin (corticotropin)
• TSH (thyrotropin)
• Prolactin
• Gonadotropic hormones → FSH & LH
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) / vasopressin Posterior
• oxytocin pituitary
hormones
• Growth hormone promotes growth of the entire body by
affecting protein formation, cell multiplication & cell
differentiation
• ACTH controls the secretion of some of the
adrenocortical hormones, which affect the metabolism
of glucose, proteins & fats
• TSH controls the rate of secretion of thyroxine &
triiodothyronine by the thyroid gland
• Prolactin promotes mammary gland development & milk
production
• FSH & LH control growth of ovaries and testes (hormonal
& reproductive activities)
• Oxytocin help express milk from the gland of the breast
& helps in h delivery of a baby at the end of gestation
 Anterior Pituitary Gland
• Contains five cell types that synthesize and secrete
hormones
• Somatotropes---human growth hormone (hGH) 30-
40%
• Corticotropes---adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) 20%
• Thyrotropes---thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH)
• Gonadotropes---gonadotropic hormones (LH & FSH)
• Lactotropes---prolactin (PRL)
 Posterior Pituitary Hormones
• Synthesized by the cell bodies in the
Hypothalamus
• The bodies of the cells that secrete PPH are
not located in the pituitary gland itself but are
large neurons called magnocellular neurons
located in the hypothalamus.
• Hormones → axoplasm of the neurons, nerve
fibers passing from the hypothalamus →
posterior pituitary gland
 Hypothalamus controls pituitary
secretion
• Almost all secretion by the pituitary is controlled either
by hormonal or nerve signals from the hypothalamus
• While secretion from the posterior pituitary is controlled
by the nerve signals, originates in the hypothalamus and
terminate in the posterior pituitary
• Hypothalamic releasing and hypothalamic inhibitory
hormones control anterior pituitary secretion and
conducted through minute blood vessels →
Hypothalamic-hypophysial portal vessels
• In the anterior pituitary, these releasing and inhibitory
hormones act on the glandular cells to control their
secretion.
 Physiological functions of Growth Hormone
• All the major anterior pituitary hormones (except growth
hormone), exert their principal effects by stimulating target
glands.
• Growth hormone exerts its effects directly on all or almost all
tissues of the body.
• Somatotropic hormone or somatotropin
• Small protein molecule, 191 aa in a single chain
• Causes growth of almost all tissues of the body
• promotes:
• Increased size of the cells
• Increased mitosis
• Development of greater numbers of cells & specific
differentiation of certain types of cells
 Growth hormone has several metabolic effects
• ↑rate of protein synthesis in cells to enhances boy protein
• ↑ mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue
• ↑ free fatty acids in the blood
• ↑ use of fatty acids for energy
• ↓ rate of glucose utilization
• Use fat stores
• Conserve carbohydrates
 Growth hormone promotes protein deposition
in tissues
• Enhancement of amino acids transport through the
cell membranes
• Enhancement of RNA translation to cause protein
synthesis by the ribosomes
• Increased nuclear transcription of DNA to form RNA
• Decreased catabolism of protein and amino acids
• It enhances all facets of amino acids uptake and
protein synthesis by cells, while at the same time
reducing the breakdown of proteins.
 Growth hormone enhances fat utilization for
energy
• Cause the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue
• Increase concentration of fatty acids in body fluids
• In tissues throughout the body, enhances the
conversion of FA→ acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) &
its subsequent utilization for energy
• Therefore, under the influence of growth hormone,
fat is for energy on preference to the use of CHO and
proteins
• Growth hormone increase in lean body mass
 “Ketogenic” effects of GH

• In excessive amount of GH, fat mobilization from

adipose tissue sometimes become so great that large
quantities of acetoacetic acid are formed by the liver
↓
• released into the body fluids → KETOSIS
• This excessive mobilization of fat from the adipose
tissue also frequently causes a fatty liver
 GH decreases carbohydrate utilization
• GH causes multiple effects that influence carbohydrate metabolism
• ↓ glucose uptake in tissues such as skeletal muscle & fat
• ↑ glucose production by the liver
• ↑ insulin secretion
• These changes results from GH-induced “insulin resistance”
↓
• Increased blood glucose concentration & a compensatory increase
in insulin secretion
• GH effects are called diabetogenic
• Excessive secretion of GH→ metabolic disturbances, found in
patients with type II (non-insulin dependent ) diabetes
• GH-induced ↑ in blood FA may impair insulin’s actions on tissue
glucose utilization
 GH stimulates cartilage and bone growth
• GH stimulates ↑ deposition of protein & ↑ growth in almost
all tissues of the body
• ↑ growth of the skeletal frame
• Multiple effects of GH on bone:
• ↑ deposition of protein by chondrocytic & osteogenic cells
that cause bone growth
• ↑ rate of reproduction of above mentioned cells
• Converting chondrocytes into osteogenic cells, causing
deposition of new bone
 Somatomedins
• GH exerts much of its effect through
intermediate substance called
somatomedins ( insulin-like growth
factors)
• GH → liver → somatomedins (small
proteins) → increases all aspects of bone
growth
• Many of the somatomedins effects on
growth are similar to the effects of
insulin on growth
• Therefore, somatomedins are also called
as insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
• Four types of somatomedins have been
isolated
• Most important one → Somatomedin C
(also called IGF-I)
 Regulation of Growth hormone secretion
• Normal concentration in plasma of an adult = 1.6-3 ng/ml
• Child or aldolescent = 6 ng/ml
• Value often ↑as high as 50 ng/ml after depletion of the body
stores of proteins or carbohydrates during prolonged
starvation
• After aldolescence, secretion ↓ slowly with aging
• GH is secreted in a pulsatile pattern, first increasing then
decreasing
 ADH and Oxytocin
• ADH is formed primarily in the supraoptic nuclei
• Oxytocin is formed primarily in the paraventricular
nuclei
• Oxytocin and ADH (vasopressin) are polypeptides
• Each containing nine amino acids
• These two hormones are almost identical
 Regulation of ADH production
• Osmotic regulation
• Increased electrolyte concentration in body
fluids → ADH in body
• Concentrated body fluids stimulates the
supraoptic nuclei to increase ADH secretion
whereas dilute body fluids inhibit it
Vasoconstrictor and pressor effects
of ADH
• Higher concentration of ADH have a potent
effect of constricting the arterioles throughout
the body and ↑ the arterial pressure →
vasopressin
• One of the stimuli for causing intense ADH
secretion is ↓ed blood volume
 Oxytocin Hormone
• Oxytocin causes contraction of the pregnant uterus
• Especially towards the end of gestation
• Therefore, it is believed that this hormone is at least
partially responsible for causing birth of the baby
• Oxytocin also plays an especially important role in
lactation
 Abnormalities of GH secretion
• Panhypothyroidism --- ↓ all ant pit secretion due to tumor
• Dwarfism ---- deficiency of ant pit hormone during childhood
• Gigantism --- acidophilic GH producing cells become
excessively active & even acidophilic tumor occur in the gland
• Acromegaly --- acidophilic tumor occurs after aldolscence
THE END