FILSAFAT ILMU DAN METODOLOGI PENELITIAN

PROGRAM MAGISTER

PROF. DR. IRIYANTO WIDISUSENO, M.HUM

 ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND RELIGION
IN MODERN AGE

• Contrasts of Theology and Science

• God’s Self-revelation Versus Man’s Discovery (Neo-orthodoxy)
• Subjective Involvement Versus Objective Detachment
• The Varities of Uses of Language (Linguistic Analysis)
• Parallels of Theology and Science
• Similar Attitudes In Science and Religion (Liberal Theology)
• An Inclusive Metaphysical System ( Process Philosophy )
 THE METHODES OF SCIENCE

• Experience and Interpretation In Science

• The Interaction of Experiment and Theory
• The Formation of Theories
• Criteria For Evaluating Theories
• Understanding As The Goal of Science
 THE RELATION OF SCIENTIFIC CONCEPT
TO REALITY

• Theories as Summaries of Data ( (Positivism)

• Theories as Useful Tools (Instrumentalism)
• Theories as Mental Structures ( Idealism )
• Theories as Represetations of The World ( Realism)
 FROM THE SCIENCES TO THE HUMANITIES

• Objectivity and Personal Involvement In Science

• The Influence of The Observer on The Data
• The Personal Judgement of The Scientist
• Objectivity as Intersubjective Testability
• Objectivity and Personal Involvement In The Social Sciences
• Personal Involvement and The Study of Man
• Subjectivity and Objectivity In The Social Sciences
 SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS
• Tree Possible Meanings of The Term “Science”
• The World Science Used :
• To denote the many fields of sciences. These bodies of knowledge
include physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, and psychology.
• For a body of systematic knowledge including hypothesis, theories, and
laws which have been built up by the work of numerous scientist through
the years.
• For a considerable number of persons the term use to designate a method
of obtaining knowledge that is objective and versifiable
• The term “scientific knowledge” : used depends upon the nature
of the material or the problem to be studied.
• Observation
• Trial And Error
• Experimentation
• Statistical Methods
• A Method of Sampling
• A Method of Reflective Thinking
 WHAT IS THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD?
• The scientific method is the process of objectively
establishing facts through testing and experimentation. The
basic process involves making an observation, forming a
hypothesis, making a prediction, conducting an experiment
and finally analyzing the results. The principals of the
scientific method can be applied in many areas, including
scientific research, business and technology.
 STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• The scientific method uses a series of steps to establish
facts or create knowledge. The overall process is well
established, but the specifics of each step may change
depending on what is being examined and who is
performing it. The scientific method can only answer
questions that can be proven or disproven through testing.
• Make an observation or ask a question.
The first step is to observe something that you would like to learn
about or ask a question that you would like answered. These can be
specific or general. Some examples would be "I observe that our
total available network bandwidth drops at noon every weekday" or
"how can we increase our website registration numbers?" Taking
the time to establish a well-defined question will help you in later
steps.
• Gather background information. This involves doing research
into what is already known about the topic. This can also involve
finding if anyone has already asked the same question.
• Create a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an explanation for the
observation or question. If proven later, it can become a fact.
Some examples would be "our employees watching online videos
during lunch is using our internet bandwidth" or "our website
visitors don't see our registration form."
• Create a prediction and perform a test. Create a testable
prediction based on the hypothesis. The test should establish a
noticeable change that can be measured or observed using
empirical analysis. It is also important to control for other
variables during the test. Some examples would be "if we block
video-sharing sites, our available bandwidth will not go down
significantly during lunch" or "if we make our registration box
bigger, a greater percentage of visitors will register for our website
than before the change."
• Analyze the results and draw a conclusion. Use the metrics
established before the test see if the results match the prediction.
For example, "after blocking video-sharing sites, our bandwidth
utilization only went down by 10% from before; this is not
enough of a change to be the primary cause of the network
congestion" or "after increasing the size of the registration box,
the percent of sign-ups went from 2% of total page views to 5%,
showing that making the box larger results in more registrations."
• Share the conclusion or decide what question to ask next:
document the results of your experiment. By sharing the results
with others, you also increase the total body of knowledge
available. Your experiment may have also led to other questions,
or if your hypothesis is disproven you may need to create a new
one and test that. For example, "because user activity is not the
cause of excessive bandwidth use, we now suspect that an
automated process is running at noon every day."
A METHOD OF REFLECTIVE THINKING : WHICH
ORDINARILY PASSES THROUGH SIX STEPS
• There is an awareness of a problem.
• The available and relevant data are collected
• The data are organized
• Hypothesis are formulated
• Deductions are drawn from the hyphothesis
• Verification is the final stage.
 SCIENTIFIC POSTULATES
• The principle of causality, is the beleif that every event has a cause and that,
in identical situations. The same cause always products the same effects.
• The principle of predictive uniformities states that a group of events will
show the same degree of interconnection or relationship in the future as has
been shown in the past or is being shown in the present.
• The principle of objectivity requires the investigator to be impartial with
regard to the data before him. The facts must be sauch that they can be
experienced in exactly the same way by all normal persons.
• The principle of empiricism, lets the investigator assume that his same
impressions are correct and that the test of truth is an appeal to the “
experienced facts”
• The principle of parsimony sugesst that, other things being aqual, a
person take the simpler explanation as the valid one. This principle is a
check upon unnessessary intricacy. It cautions against the use of
complicated explanations.
• The principle of isolation, or sigration, requires that the phenomenon
to be investigated be segregated so that it can be studied by self.
THE VALUE AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF SCIENCE
• There are some principles which will help to point up some of the
limitations of science and the sicintific method.
• In scientific research, you can find only that which your method and your
instrumens are capable of finding. You can discover only that which is
coverable with the technique which you use.
• Scientific classification give valuable information, but it does not include
everythink in subject classified.
• There are qualities in the wholes that are nor discoverable
in the parts if we analyze an object, its elements or
simples unit are not more real than the object or event
with which we began. Scientific method concerned with
the breaking down of objects in to their constituent
elements.
 THE VALIDITY OF KNOWLEDGE

• THRE TEST OF TRUTH :

• COHERENCE THEORY
• CORRESPONDENCE THEORY
• PRAGMATIC THEORY
 THE REALM OF VALUES

• WHAT IS A VALUE
• DO WE DISCOVER VALUE OR CREAT IT
• CLASSIFICATION OF VALUE
• VALUES AND THE HUMAN SOCIETY
• ETHICS AND THE MORAL LIFE
• THE ETHICAL STANDARD
• THE BASIS OF THE MORAL LIFE.
 ETHICS IN RESEARCH & WHY IS IT
IMPORTANT
• WHAT IS ETHICS IN RESEARCH & WHY IS IT
IMPORTANT
• CODES AND POLICIES FOR RESEARCH ETHICS
• ETHICAL DECISION MAKING IN RESEARCH
• PROMOTING ETHICAL CONDUCT IN SCIENCE
PROBLEM ETIK DALAM RISET DI BIDANG
KESEHATAN
Perdebatan dan tantangan etis yang berkembang
dewasa ini dalam penelitian di bidang kesehatan
o Isu yang berkenaan dengan prinsip etis;
o Isu yang berkenaan dengan riset, praktik, peninjau etik, dan hukum;
o Isu yang berkenaan dengan ragam profesi kesehatan;
o Isu yang berkenaan dengan aspek sosial dan budaya dari penelitian,
o Isu yang berkenaan dengan kepengarangan.