Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.

Petroleum Engineering Dept.

University of Baghdad
2nd Class
PRINCIPLES OF FLUID
MOTION

09/26/2023 1
 Principles of Fluid Motion
OUTLINE Description of the fluid motion
Velocity and acceleration
 Kinematics of fluid motion Flow types: steady/unsteady and uniform/non-uniform flows
1, 2 & 3 dimensional flows
Flow patterns: streamlines, stream-tubes, path-lines, streak lines

 Continuity equation

 Bernoulli’s equation

 Applications of Bernoulli’s equation

09/26/2023
2
Fluid kinematics the study of velocity and acceleration of the particles of fluids in motion
and their distribution in space without considering any force or energy involved.

• The motion of fluid can be described fully by an expression describing the location of a
fluid particle in space at different times.
• Enabling determination of the magnitude and direction of velocity and acceleration in the
flow field at any instant of time.

DESCRIPTION OF FLUID MOTION

The motion of fluid particles may be described by the
following methods:
1. Langrangian method.
2. Eulerian method.

09/26/2023 3
 Description of fluid motion
Langrangian Method
• The observer concentrates on the movement of a single particle.
• The path taken by the particle and the changes in its velocity and acceleration are studied.
 If we plot the position of the individual fluid parcel as it moves through space/time we will have a
path line of the parcel

09/26/2023 4
 Description of fluid motion
The Eulerian(after Euler) view

o The observer focuses on a point in space of the flow field, i.e. coordinates of the point
are fixed
o To cover the flow field, the observer needs to have a number of observation points
within the flow field
o This can be visualized by sitting on the bank of a river and watching the water pass
the fixed location

09/26/2023 5
 Description of fluid motion

Pitot tube is a device that can be used to measure velocity by

measuring pressure ρgh

Is the Lagrangian or Eulerian approach

used here?

09/26/2023 6
 Description of fluid motion
Pitot tube is an example of an Eulerian instrument:
Fixed position A(x1, y1, z1) where change of velocity with time is recorded u(x1,
y1, z1, t)

09/26/2023 7
 Description of fluid motion
 Fixed mass system

Lagrangian approach

 Fixed boundary system -control volume

Eulerian approach

09/26/2023 8
 Velocity of a flow
 Velocity is a vector

Velocity field Pressure field

 Velocity can be expressed using three velocity components

 Velocity generally varies

with position and time

09/26/2023 9
 Velocity of a flow
General definition
§ The velocity of an object, e.g. fluid particle, is the rate of
change of its position with respect to a frame of reference

§ Velocity components:

09/26/2023 10
 Acceleration of a fluid particle
ª Acceleration along the direction of the flow

velocity at point at the instant t

 Velocity changes with both in time and in space
 Therefore for the total change of velocity we have to take into account both t and S

Difference between velocities at A and Change of velocity at a point, e.g. B,

B at a given instant t occurring during time dt=t2–t1

09/26/2023 11
 Acceleration of a fluid particle
 Acceleration along the direction of the flow d- differential sign (full)
- differential sign (partial)

Total change of velocity

Change of velocity at a
Difference between velocities point, e.g. B, occurring
at A and B at a given instant t during time dt

09/26/2023
Note: Both symbols U and V can be used for velocity 12
 Acceleration of a fluid particle
 Acceleration along the direction of the flow
⃗
 The total change of velocity is in both t and
𝑆
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑑𝑡 (1)
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
 Acceleration is defined as rate of change of velocity

𝑑𝑈 𝜕 𝑈 𝑑𝑠 𝜕 𝑈 𝑑𝑡 d- differential sign (full)

𝑎𝑠 = = +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 - differential sign (partial)

09/26/2023 13
 Acceleration of a fluid particle
 Acceleration along the direction of the flow 𝑑𝑈 𝜕 𝑈 𝑑𝑠 𝜕 𝑈
𝑎𝑠 = = +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝑎𝑠 = =𝑈 +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕 𝑠 𝜕𝑡
substantial Convective Local or temporal
acceleration acceleration acceleration
 The full rate of change of velocity for a given particle is termed as substantial acceleration

 Convective acceleration is the rate of change of velocity due to the particle moving from one
position to another
 Local acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time at a particular point
in the flow
09/26/2023 14
 Example. 1
A nozzle is designed to accelerate the flow from V1 to V2 in a linear fashion, that is V(x)= a x +
b, where a and b are positive constants. If the flow is steady at V1= 5 m/s at x1=0 m (the
entrance to the nozzle) and V2= 15 m/s at x2=1m, determine the temporal (local) and spatial
(convective) accelerations of the fluid at points 1 & 2.
Solution: Using determine the units for coefficients a and b

Units for b=[m/s] and a=[1/s]

Considering velocities at 1 and 2 determine values of a and b, and note that

09/26/2023 15
 Example. 1
A nozzle is designed to accelerate the flow from V1 to V2 in a linear fashion, that is V(x)= a x +
b, where a and b are positive constants. If the flow is steady at V1= 5 m/s at x1=0 m (the
entrance to the nozzle) and V2= 15 m/s at x2=1m, determine the temporal (local) and spatial
(convective) accelerations of the fluid at points 1 & 2.
Solution:

Therefore, the expression for velocity is

So the local (temporal) acceleration

is zero at both points 1 and 2

And the convective (spatial) acceleration:

09/26/2023 16
 Example. 2
The flow feeding to the nozzle in example 1 is linearly increased from initially 0 flow. The velocity
in the nozzle can now be described as: V(x,t)=(10x+5)*t. Determine the local, convective and
substantial accelerations at point 2 two seconds after the start of the flow.
Solution:
Local (temporal) acceleration:

The convective (spatial) acceleration:

And the substantial acceleration:

09/26/2023 17
Types of Fluid Flow

Steady &
Unsteady Flow

Laminar & Uniform &Non-

Turbulent Flow uniform Flow

Rotational & 1D, 2D &3D

Irrotational Flow Flow
09/26/2023 18
 Types of Fluid Flow
Steady/unsteady flow
© Steady flow: flow parameters (e.g. velocity) § Unsteady flow: flow parameters (e.g. velocity)
at any point do not change with time at any point change with time

• In practice, absolutely steady flow is an exception, but many problems may be

studied effectively by assuming that the flow is steady
• However, there are a few cases where unsteady effects are important, e.g. fast flowing
liquid is rapidly brought to rest. Such unsteady flows can generate very large pressure
surges.
09/26/2023 19
 Types of Fluid Flow
Uniform, non-uniform flow
ª Uniform: at a particular instant in time flow parameters do not change with position,
i.e. from point to point over specified region

 Non-uniform: flow parameters change with position

• Flow can be uniform in one-direction but

non-uniform in another, e.g.:
09/26/2023 20
 Types of Fluid Flow
One, two & three dimensional flows
• One-dimensional flow: flow parameters vary with ONE
space coordinate only, for example y

• Two-dimensional flow: flow parameters vary with

TWO space coordinates only, for example x & y
• Three-dimensional: flow parameters vary along all
THREE coordinates: x, y& z

09/26/2023 21
 Types of Fluid Flow
Rotational and Irrotational Flows
• Rotational flow. A flow is said to be rotational if the fluid
particles while moving in the direction of flow rotate about
their mass centers. Flow near the solid boundaries is
rotational. Motion of liquid in a rotating tank.

• Irrotational flow. A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid

particles while moving in the direction of flow do not rotate
about their mass centers. Flow outside the boundary layer
is generally considered irrotational. Flow above a drain hole
of a stationary tank or a wash basin.

Note. 09/26/2023
If the flow is irrotational as well as steady, it is known as Potential flow.
22
 Types of Fluid Flow
Laminar and Turbulent Flows
• Laminar flow. A laminar flow is one in which paths taken by the
individual particles do not cross one another and move along well
defined paths, This type of flow is also called stream-line flow or
viscous flow. Examples. (i) Flow through a capillary tube. (ii) Flow of
blood in veins and arteries. (iii) Ground water flow.

Turbulent flow. A turbulent flow is that flow in which fluid particles move in
a zig zag way.
Example. High velocity flow in a conduit of large size. Nearly all fluid flow
problems
encountered in engineering practice have a turbulent character.
Fig. 5.5. Laminar flow. Fig. 5.6. Turbulent flow.
Laminar and turbulent flows are characterised on the basis of Reynolds
number (refer to
chapter 10).
For Reynolds number (Re) < 2000 ... flow in pipes is laminar.
For Reynolds number (Re) > 4000 ... flow in pipes is turbulent
For Re09/26/2023
between 2000 and 4000 ... flow in pipes may be laminar or 23
 TYPES OF FLOW LINES
• Whenever a fluid is in motion, its innumerable particles move along certain lines depending upon
the conditions of flow.
is the path followed by a fluid particle in motion. A
path line shows the direction of particular particle as
Path line it moves ahead. In general, this is the curve in three-
dimensional space.

A stream line way can be defined as an imaginary

Stream line line within the flow so that the tangent at any point on
it indicates the velocity at that point.
Equation of a stream line in a three-dimensional flow is given as:
 In steady flow, the pattern of streamlines
remains invariant with time. The path lines and
streamlines will then be identical.
 In unsteady flow, the pattern of streamlines may
09/26/2023 or may not remain the same at the next instant. 24
 TYPES OF FLOW LINES
A stream tube is a fluid mass bounded by a
Stream Tube group of streamlines. The contents of a
stream tube are known as ‘current filament’.
Examples of stream tube: Pipes and nozzles.

Streak Line
The streak line is a curve which gives an instantaneous picture of the
location of the fluid particles, which have passed through a given
point. Examples. (i) The path taken by smoke coming out of chimney

(ii) In an experimental work to trace the

motion of fluid particles, a coloured dye may
be injected into the flowing fluid and the
resulting coloured filament lines at a given
location give the streak lines

09/26/2023 25
Example 1. In a fluid, the velocity field is given by
Determine:
(i) The velocity components u, v, w at any point in the flow field; (ii) The speed at point (1, 1, 1);
(iii) The speed at time t = 2s at point (0, 0, 2).
Also classify the velocity field as steady, or unsteady, uniform or non-uniform and one, two or three
dimensional.

09/26/2023 26
09/26/2023 27
09/26/2023 28
09/26/2023 29
 HW
1. Find the velocity and acceleration at a point (1, 2, 3) after 1 sec. for a three
dimensional flow given by

2. The velocity along the centreline of a nozzle of length l is given by

where V = velocity in m/s, t = time in seconds from commencement of flow, x =

distance from inlet to nozzle. Calculate the local acceleration, convective
acceleration and the total acceleration when t = 6s, x = 1m and l = 1.6 m.
3. Obtain the equation to the streamlines for the velocity field given as:

09/26/2023 30
 HW
4. A conical pipe diverges uniformly from 100 mm to
200 m diameter over a length of 1 m. Determine the
local and convective acceleration at the mid-section
assuming (i) Rate of flow is 0.12 m3/s and it remains
constant; (ii) Rate of flow varies uniformly from 0.12
m3/s to 0.24 m3/s in 5 sec., at t = 2 sec.

5. At entry to the pump intake the velocity is found to vary inversely as the square of
radial distance from inlet to suction pipe. The velocity was found to be 0.6 m/s at a
radial distance of 1.5 m. Calculate the acceleration of flow at radial distances of 0.5 m,
1.0 m and 1.5 m from the inlet. Consider the streamlines to be radial.

09/26/2023 31
 FLUID DYNAMICS
• The science which deals with the geometry of motion of fluids without reference to the
forces causing the motion is known as “hydrokinematics” (kinematics)
Kinematics involves merely the description of the motion of fluids in terms of space-time relationship.

• The science which deals with the action of the forces in producing or changing motion of
fluids is known as “hydrokinetics” (kinetics).
Dynamic is the study of fluids in motion involves the consideration of both the kinematics
and kinetics.

• The dynamic equation of fluid motion is obtained by applying Newton’s second law of
motion to a fluid element considered as a free body.

The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous. In fluid mechanics the basic equations
are: (i) Continuity equation, (ii) Energy equation, and (iii) Impulse momentum equation.
09/26/2023 32
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENERGIES OF A LIQUID IN MOTION
• There are three types of energies or heads of flowing liquids:
1. Potential head or potential energy: This is due to configuration or position above some
suitable datum line. It is denoted by z.

2. Velocity head or kinetic energy: This is due to velocity of flowing liquid and is measured as

3. Pressure head or pressure energy:

This is due to the pressure of liquid and reckoned as where, p is the pressure, and w is the
weight density of the liquid.

Total head/energy: Total head of a liquid particle in motion is the sum of its potential
head, kinetic head and pressure head. Mathematically,

09/26/2023 33
09/26/2023 34
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Bernoulli’s equation can be directly derived using the Newton’s second law:
The rate of change of momentum of a body equals the net force exerted on it.

Or in mathematical form:

Basic assumptions:
• The fluid is frictionless or inviscid(ideal)
• The fluid is incompressible, i.e. ρ=constant
• The flow is steady
• The flow is one-dimensional

09/26/2023 35
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

 Consider steady flow (no change in time)

Consider a stream-tube of a small cross-
section
Consider a small cylindrical element that
occupies part of the stream-tube

• Change of V and p from point to point must be associated with a force

• The relation between these changes may be studied by applying Newton’s 2nd law

09/26/2023 36
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION (cont.)

Forces acting on a small cylindrical element:

1. Pressure forces
2. Component of weight in the flow direction

Note: other forces, e.g. forces due to viscosity, are assumed

to be negligible

09/26/2023 37
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION (cont.)
• By integrating along the stream-tube between any two sections, we obtain
Bernoulli’s Equation:

• It can also be written as,

• In words: the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy per unit volume, and
pressure is conserved when the fluid flows from one section to another along the
stream-tube
• The head form of Bernoulli’s equation (divide by specific weight ρg):

09/26/2023 38
 Example
Brine of specific gravity 1.15 is draining from the bottom of a large open tank through an 80 mm pipe. The
drain pipe ends at a point 10 m below the surface of the brine in the tank. Considering a stream line
starting at the surface of the brine in the tank and passing through the center of the drain line to the point
of discharge and assuming the friction is negligible, calculate the velocity of flow along the stream line at
the point of discharge from the pipe.

09/26/2023 39
 HW
(1) A pipeline is 15 cm in diameter and it is at an elevation of 100 m at section A. At section B it is
at an elevation of 107 m and has diameter of 30 cm. When a discharge of 50 liter/sec of water is
passed through this pipeline, pressure at A is 35 kPa. The energy loss in pipe is 2m of water.
Calculate pressure at B if flow is from A to B.

(2) An open circuit wind tunnel draws in air from the atmosphere through a well
contoured nozzle. In the test section, where the flow is straight and nearly uniform,
a static pressure tap is drilled into the tunnel wall. A manometer connected to the
tap shows that the static pressure within the tunnel is 45 mm of water below
atmosphere. Assume that air is incompressible and at 25°C, pressure is 100 kPa
(absolute). Calculate the velocity in the wind tunnel section (Refer to Fig. 6.6).
Density of water is 999 kg/m3 and characteristic gas constant for air is 287 J/kg K.

(3) Water flows in a circular pipe. At one section the diameter is 0.3 m, the static
pressure is 260 kPa gauge, the velocity is 3 m/s and the elevation is 10 m above
ground level. The elevation at a section downstream is 0 m, and the pipe diameter
is 0.15 m. Find out the gauge pressure at the downstream section. Frictional effects
may be neglected. Assume density of water to be 999 kg/m3.

09/26/2023 40
 HW
(4) The water is flowing through a tapering pipe having diameters 300 mm and 150
mm at sections 1 and 2 respectively. The discharge through the pipe is 40 litres/sec.
The section 1 is 10 m above datum and section 2 is 6 m above datum. Find the
intensity of pressure at section 2 if that at section 1 is 400 kN/m2.

(5). A pipe 200 m long slopes down at 1 in 100 and tapers from 600 mm
diameter at the higher end to 300 mm diameter at the lower end, and
carries 100 litres/sec of oil (sp. Gravity 0.8). If the pressure gauge at the
higher end reads 60 kN/m2, determine:
(i) Velocities at the two ends;
(ii) Pressure at the lower end.
Neglect all losses.

09/26/2023 41
 Example
Water flows through horizontal branching pipe as shown in the figure below: Determine the pressure at section (3)

or where Also

𝑧 1= 𝑧 2

𝑉 3=
0. 4
m3
s
2
(
−0 .02 m 10 . 78
m
s ) =2 . 63 m
2
0 . 07 m s
Then from

kN
𝑃 3= ( 400 + 4 . 54 ) 2
= 404 . 5 kP
09/26/2023 m 42
 Example
Water flows through horizontal branching pipe as shown in the figure At rate 10 ft3/s. If viscous effects are
negligible, determine the water speed at section (2), the pressure at section(3) and the flowrate at section (4)

From (1) to (2):

where si, p2= 5 psi, v1=q1/A1=10 ft/s

From (1) to (3): where ,

09/26/2023 43
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Although Bernoulli’s equation is applicable in all problems of incompressible flow where there is
involvement of energy considerations but here we shall discuss its applications in the following
measuring devices:
1. Venturimeter 2. Orificemeter 3. Rotameter and elbow meter 4. Pitot tube.
Venturimeter
A venturimeter is one of the most important practical applications of Bernoulli’s theorem. It is
an instrument used to measure the rate of discharge in a pipeline and is often fixed
permanently at different sections of the pipeline to know the discharges there.
A venturimeter has been named after the 18th century Italian
engineer Venturi.
Types of venturimeters:
Venturimeters may be classified as follows:
1. Horizontal venturimeters.
2. Vertical venturimeters.
3. Inclined venturimeters.
09/26/2023 44
 A venturi meter consists of the following three parts:
(i) A short converging part,
Horizontal venturi meters (ii) Throat, and
(iii) Diverging part.
Expression for rate of flow:
Fig shows a venturi meter fitted in horizontal pipe through which
a fluid is flowing.
Let, D1 = Diameter at inlet or at section 1,
p1 = Pressure at section 1,
V1 = Velocity of fluid at section 1,
and D2, A2, p2, and V2 are the corresponding values at section 2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2, we get:
Since the horizontal plane then Z1=Z2

or

09/26/2023 45
 Horizontal Venturi meters

Applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2, we have:

or or

09/26/2023 46
 Horizontal venturi meters

The last equation gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called theoretical
discharge. Actual discharger (Qact) which is less than the theoretical discharge (Qth.) is given
by: where, Cd = Co-efficient of venturi meter (or co-efficient
of discharge) and its value is less than unity (varies
between 0.96 and 0.98)
• Due to variation of Cd venturi meters are not suitable for very low velocities.
Value of ‘h’ by differential U-tube manometer:
Case. I. Differential manometer containing a liquid heavier than the liquid flowing through the pipe.

09/26/2023 47
 Horizontal venturi meters

Value of ‘h’ by differential U-tube manometer:

Case. II. Differential manometer containing a liquid lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe.

Example: A horizontal venturi meter with inlet diameter 200 mm and throat diameter 100
mm is used to measure the flow of water. The pressure at inlet is 0.18 N/ and the vacuum
pressure at the throat is 280 mm of mercury. Find the rate of flow. The value of Cd may be
taken as 0.98.

09/26/2023
Example: A horizontal venturi meter with inlet diameter 200 mm and throat diameter 100 mm is
used to measure the flow of water. The pressure at inlet is 0.18 N/ and the vacuum pressure at
the throat is 280 mm of mercury. Find the rate of flow. The value of Cd may be taken as 0.98.

09/26/2023 49
Example: horizontal venturi meter with inlet diameter 200 mm and throat diameter 100 mm is
employed to measure the flow of water. The reading of the differential manometer connected to
the inlet is 180 mm of mercury. If the co-efficient of discharge is 0.98, determine the rate of flow.

To find difference of pressure head (h) using the relation,

09/26/2023 50
 H.W.

1. A horizontal venturi meter with inlet and throat diameters 300 mm and 100 mm respectively is used to measure
the flow of water. The pressure intensity at inlet is 130 kN/ while the vacuum pressure head at the throat is 350 mm
of mercury. Assuming that 3 per cent of head is lost in between the inlet and throat, find:
(i) The value of Cd (co-efficient of discharge) for the venturi meter, and
(ii) Rate of flow.

2. Venturi meter (throat diameter = 10.5 cm) is fitted to a water pipeline

(internal diameter = 21.0 cm) in order to monitor flow rate. To improve
accuracy of measurement, pressure difference across the venturimeter is
measured with the help of an inclined tube manometer, the angle of
inclination being 30° (Figure). For a manometer reading of 9.5 cm of mercury,
find the flow rate. Discharge co-efficient of venturimeter is 0.984.

3. Water at the rate of 30 litres/sec. is flowing through a 0.2 m. I.D. pipe. A venturi meter of throat diameter 0.1 m is
fitted in the pipeline. A differential manometer in the pipeline has an indicator liquid M and the manometer reading
is 1.16 m. What is the relative density of the manometer liquid M? Venturi co-efficient = 0.96; Density of water =
998 kg/m3.
09/26/2023 51
 H.W.

4. A venturi meter is installed in a pipeline carrying water and is 30 cm in diameter. The throat diameter is 12.5
cm. The pressure in pipeline is 140 kN/m2, and the vacuum in the throat is 37.5 cm of mercury. Four percent of
the differential head is lost between the gauges. Working from first principles find the flow rate in the pipeline in
l/s assuming the venturi meter to be horizontal.

Vertical and inclined venturi meters

Vertical or inclined venturi meters are employed for
measuring discharge on pipelines which are not horizontal.
The same formula for discharge as used for horizontal
venturimeter holds good in these cases as well.

Example. A 200 mm × 100 mm venturimeter is provided in a vertical pipe carrying water, flowing in the upward
direction. A differential mercury manometer connected to the inlet and throat gives a reading of 220 mm. Find the
rate of flow. Assume Cd = 0.98.

Solution. Diameter at the inlet, D1 = 200 mm = 0.2 m

09/26/2023 52
Example. A 200 mm × 100 mm venturimeter is provided in a vertical pipe carrying water, flowing in the upward
direction. A differential mercury manometer connected to the inlet and throat gives a reading of 220 mm. Find the
rate of flow. Assume Cd = 0.98.

09/26/2023 53
Example. A 300 mm × 150 mm venturimeter is provided in a vertical pipeline carrying oil
of specific gravity 0.9, flow being upward. The difference in elevation of the throat
section and entrance section of the venturimeter is 300 mm. The differential U-tube
mercury manometer shows a gauge deflection of 250 mm. Calculate:
(i) The discharge of oil, and
(ii) The pressure difference between the entrance section and the throat section. Take
the co-efficient of meter as 0.98 and specific gravity of mercury as 13.6.

09/26/2023 54
Example. Determine the rate of flow of water through a pipe of 300 mm diameter placed in an inclined position
where a venturimeter is inserted, having a throat diameter of 150 mm. The difference of pressure between the main
and throat is measured by a liquid of sp. gravity 0.7 in an inverted U- tube which gives a reading of 260 mm. The loss
of head between the main and throat is 0.3 times the kinetic head of the pipe.

09/26/2023 55
Example. The following data relate to an inclined venturimeter:
Diameter of the pipeline = 400 mm, Inclination of the pipeline with the horizontal =
30°
Throat diameter = 200 mm, The distance between the mouth and throat of the
meter = 600 mm, Sp. gravity of oil flowing through the pipeline = 0.7, Sp. gravity of
heavy liquid (U-tube) = 13.6, Reading of the differential manometer = 50 mm, The
co-efficient of the meter = 0.98. Determine the rate of flow in the pipeline.

09/26/2023 56
 H.W.

A vertical venturimeter carries a liquid of relative density 0.8 and has

inlet and throat diameters of 150 mm and 75 mm respectively. The
pressure connection at the throat is 150 mm above that at the inlet. If
the actual rate of flow is 40 litres/sec and the Cd = 0.96, calculate the
pressure difference between inlet and throat in N/m2.

09/26/2023 57
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Orificemeter or orifice plate is a device (cheaper than a venturimeter) employed for measuring the
Orificemeter
discharge of fluid through a pipe. It also works on the same principle of a venturimeter.
• It consists of a flat circular plate having a circular sharp edged hole
(called orifice) concentric with the pipe.
• The diameter of the orifice may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the
diameter of the pipe.
• A differential manometer is connected at section (1) which is at a
distance of 1.5 to 2 times the pipe diameter upstream from the
orifice plate, and at section (2) which is at a distance of about half
the diameter of the orifice from the orifice plate on the
downstream side.
Let, A1 = Area of pipe at section (1), V1 = Velocity at section (1),
p1 = Pressure at section (1), and
A2 V2 and p2 are corresponding values at section (2).

09/26/2023 58
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Orificemeter

09/26/2023 59
Example . The following data relate to an orificemeter: Diameter of the pipe = 240 mm, Diameter of the orifice =
120 mm, Sp. gravity of oil = 0.88, Reading of differential manometer = 400 mm of mercury, Co-efficient of discharge
of the meter = 0.65. Determine the rate of flow of oil.

09/26/2023 60
Example . Water flows at the rate of 0.015 m3/s through a 100 mm diameter orifice used in a 200 mm pipe. What is
the difference of pressure head between the upstream section and the vena contracta section? Take co-efficient of
contraction Cc = 0.60 and Cv = 1.0.

H.W. (a) Derive an expression for the volumetric flow rate of a fluid flowing through an orificemeter. Write down the
advantages and disadvantages of using orificemeter over a venturimeter. (b) Water is flowing through a pipeline of 50 cm
ID at 30°C. An orifice is placed in the pipeline to measure the flow rate. Orifice diameter is 20 cm. If the manometer
reads 30 cm of Hg, calculate the water flow rate and velocity of the fluid through the pipe. ρwater at 30°C = 987 kg/m3, ρHg =
13600 kg/m3, Orifice co-efficient. = 0.6

09/26/2023 61
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
One of the most accurate devices for velocity measurement. It works on the principle that if the velocity of
Pitot Tube flow at a point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due to conversion of kinetic energy into
pressure.
• Pitot tube consists of a glass tube in the form of a 90° bend of short length open
at both its ends.
• It is placed in the flow with its bent leg directed upstream so that a stagnation
point is created immediately in front of the opening.
• The kinetic energy at this point gets converted into pressure energy causing the
liquid to rise in the vertical limb, to a height equal to the stagnation pressure.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between stagnation point (S) and point (P) in the
undisturbed flow at the same horizontal plane, we get:

p0 = Pressure at point ‘P’, i.e. static pressure, V = Velocity at point ‘P’, i.e. free flow velocity, ps = Stagnation pressure at point ‘S’,
and Δh = Dynamic pressure = Difference between stagnation pressure head (hs) and static pressure head (h0).

where, C = A connective coefficient which takes into account the effect of stem and bent leg.
The most commonly used form of Pitot static tube known as the Prandle-Pitot-tube is so
09/26/2023 62
designed that the effect of stem and bent leg cancel each other, i.e., C = 1.
Example. A submarine fitted with a Pitot tube moves horizontally in sea. Its axis is 12 m below the surface of water.
The Pitot tube fixed in front of the submarine and along its axis is connected to the two limbs of a U-tube containing
mercury, the reading of which is found to be 200 mm. Find the speed of the submarine. Take the specific gravity of
sea water = 1.025 times fresh water.

H.W. For the flow situation shown in Fig. determine the ratio h1/h2 if the area ratio A1/A2=1.8.
Neglect the loses due to friction.

H.W. Petroleum oil (sp. gr. = 0.9 and viscosity = 13 cP) flows isothermally through a horizontal 5 cm pipe. A Pitot tube is
inserted at the centre of a pipe and its leads are filled with the same oil and attached to a U-tube containing water. The reading
09/26/2023 63
on the manometer is 10 cm. Calculate the volumetric flow of oil in m3/s. The co-efficient of Pitot tube is 0.98.
 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM EQUATION
The impulse-momentum equation is one of the basic tools (other being continuity and Bernoulli’s equations) for the solution of
flow problems.
Its application leads to the solution of problems in fluid mechanics which cannot be solved by energy principles alone.
Sometimes it is used in conjunction with the energy equation to obtain complete solution of engineering problems.
The momentum equation is based on the law of conservation of momentum or momentum principle which states as follows:
“The net force acting on a mass of fluid is equal to change in momentum of flow per unit time in that direction”.
As per Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma where, m = Mass of fluid,
F = Force acting on the fluid, and
But acceleration, a = Acceleration (acting in the same direction as F).
(‘m’ is taken inside the differential, being constant)
This equation is known as momentum principle. It can also be written as:

This equation is known as Impulse-momentum equation. It may be stated as follows:

“The impulse of a force F acting on a fluid mass ‘m’ in a short interval of time dt is equal to the change of momentum
d(mv) in direction of force”. The impulse-momentum equations are often called simply momentum equations.

09/26/2023 64
 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM EQUATION

Steady flow momentum equation:

The entire flow space may be considered to be made up of innumerable
stream tubes. Let us
consider one such stream tube lying in the X-Y plane (Fig 6.48) and having
steady flow of fluid.
Flow can be assumed to be uniform and normal to the inlet and outlet areas.
Let, V1,ρ1 = Average velocity and density (of fluid mass) respectively at the
entrance, and
V2, ρ2 = Average velocity and density respectively at the exit.

According to the principle of mass conservation,

Fluid mass with the region 1 2 2′ 1′ = Fluid mass within the region 4 3 3′ 4′

Momentum of fluid mass contained in the region 1 2 2′ 1′

Momentum of fluid mass contained in the region 4 3 3′ 4′

∴ Change in momentum =

09/26/2023 65
 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM EQUATION

Steady flow momentum equation:

for steady incompressible flow

from continuity considerations

Change in momentum =

Using impulse-momentum principle, we have:

the components of the force

exerted by the pipe bend on the
fluid mass.
Usually, we are interested in the forces by the fluid on the pipe bend.
Since action and reaction are equal and opposite (Newton’s third law of
motion), the fluid mass would exert the same force on the pipe bend
but in opposite direction and as such the force components exerted by
the fluid on the pipe bend are given as follows: 66
 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM EQUATION
Since the dynamic forces must be supplemented by the static pressure
Steady flow momentum equation: forces acting over the inlet and outlet sections, therefore, we have:

The magnitude of the resultant force acting on the pipe bend,

the direction of the resultant force with X-axis,

09/26/2023 67
Example. In a 45° bend a rectangular air duct of 1 cross-sectional area is gradually reduced to 0.5 m2 area. Find the
magnitude and direction of force required to hold the duct in position if the velocity of flow at 1 m2 section is 10 m/s, and
pressure is 30 kN/ . Take the specific weight of air as 0.0116 kN/ .

09/26/2023 68
 H.W.
250 litres/sec. of water is flowing in a pipe having a diameter of 300 mm. If the pipe is
bent by 135°, find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the bend. The
pressure of the water flowing is 400 kN/m2. Take specific weight of water as 9.81 kN/m3.

360 litres per second of water is flowing in a pipe. The pipe is bent by 120°. The pipe bend measures
360 mm × 240 mm and volume of the bend is 0.14 m3. The pressure at the entrance is 73 kN/m2 and the
exit is 2.4 m above the entrance section. Find the force exerted on the bend.

Fig. shows a 90° reducer-bend through which water flows. The pressure at the inlet is 210 kN/m2
(gauge ) where the cross-sectional area is 0.01 m2. At the exit section, the area is 0.0025 m2 and the
velocity is 16 m/s. The pressure at the exit is atmospheric. Determine the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force on the bend.

Water enters a reducing pipe horizontally and comes out vertically in the downward direction. If the inlet velocity is 5 m/s and
pressure is 80 kPa (gauge) and the diameters at the entrance and exit sections are 30 cm and 20 cm respectively, calculate the
components of the reaction acting on the pipe.
The following data refer to the Y-fitting shown in Fig. Reading of the pressure gauge at section 1-
1 = 30 kN/m2. Discharge in at the section 1-1 = 15 litres/sec. Discharge out from the section 3-3
= 5 litres/sec. Assuming one-dimensional flow, neglecting elevation head and energy loss while
making the energy balance, determine:
(i) The pressures at the sections 2-2 and 3-3;
09/26/2023 69
(ii) The force needed to hold the fitting in position.
 LAMINAR FLOW

So far, in the preceding lectures, primarily the flow of an ideal fluid has been discussed. In the case of Newtonian fluid, the
flows can be classified as (i) laminar (or viscous), and (ii) turbulent, depending on characteristic Reynolds number

Characteristics of laminar flow:

(1) ‘No slip’ at the boundary.
(2) Due to viscosity, there is a shear between fluid layers, which is given by ⋅ for flow in X-direction.
(3) The flow is rotational.
(4) Due to viscous shear, there is continuous dissipation of energy and for maintaining the flow energy must be supplied
externally.
(5) Loss of energy is proportional to first power of velocity and first power of viscosity.
(6) No mixing between different fluid layers (except by molecular motion, which is very small).
(7) The flow remains laminar as long as is less than critical value of Reynolds number.
Reynolds experiment
Osborne Reynolds in 1883, with the help of a simple experiment, demonstrated
the existence of the following two types of flows:

09/26/2023 70
 LAMINAR FLOW

Reynolds experiment

09/26/2023 71