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Folds and Types of Folds

Engineering Geology
Muhammad Rehan Hakro
 Strike and Dip

Strike is long line, dip is short line

Note the angle of dip given 45o

Strike intersection w horizontal, dip perpendicular, angle from horizontal down toward surfa
 Factors Affecting Rock Deformation

• Intensity of applied stress

• Heat –Temperature of the Rock
• Amount of Time the Stress is applied
• Rock Composition
Folds
• It is frequently seen that the strata forming
the earth’s crust have been not only tilted out
of the horizontal but also bent and buckled
into folds.
• Such a fold may range from microscopic
crinkle to great arches and troughs even up
to 100 kms across.
• A complete fold is composed of arched
portion or Anticline and a depressed trough
or syncline.
 Folds

The size of the angle between the limbs: this reflects the intensity
of compression of the fold
 Folds

• In a series of folds it is evident like waves.

They consist of alternate crests and troughs.
• The crest of the fold is termed as anticline
while the trough is called synclines.
• An anticline and syncline constitute a fold.
 Folds
Limbs or Flanks:
• Limbs or a flank of the fold is sloping side
from the crest to the trough.

Axial plane:
• An imaginary plane bisecting the vertical
angle between equal slopes on either sides
of the crest line.
Topography may be opposite of Structure
Syncline Before/After Erosion

Notice center rock youngest

Open and Closed Folds

• Depending on the intensity of

deformation, the beds of the fold may
or may not have uniform thickness. If
the thickness of beds is uniform
throughout the folds, it is called an
open fold. On the other hand, in a fold,
if the beds are thinner in the limb
portions and thicker at crest and
trough, such a fold is called closed fold.
Similar and Parallel Folds

• Based on whether the shape of folds

remain the same or altered with depth,
folds are grouped as similar or parallel
folds. In the case of similar folds, the
shape or pattern of folds remain the
same at depths also. But in the case of
parallel folds, the crest and trough
become pointed or angular
 Folds

• Types of Folds:

• Based on the geometrical appearance in

cross-section, the types of folds are described
below from simple to complex.

• Homocline:

• Beds dipping in one direction but at the same

angle.
 Folds
• Monocline:
Infect beds, there are steep dip at one
or two places. Such a bed where
inclination is high at one or two places
compared to the rest.
OR
This is a fold in which only one limb is
bent.
 Folds
Plunging Fold or Pitching Fold:
• This is a fold whose axis is at some
angle with the horizontal. The
inclination of the fold axis with the
horizontal is called plunge of the fold.
Non-Plunging Folds
• Anticlines and syncline whose axes are
horizontal
 Folds
• Isocline or Carinate Fold:
• This is a fold whose limbs dip at the
same angle in the same direction. The
two limbs in this case are parallel. The
axial plane may be vertical, inclined or
horizontal.
• In Greek Isoclinal fold means the two
limbs dip in the same direction but at the
same angle.
Overturned Fold:
This is a fold whose limbs dip unequally
in the same direction.
OR
• In this fold the two limbs dip in the
same direction but at different angles.
The axial plane is inclined.
A fold in which the axial plane is absolutely
horizontal and the limbs are also more or
less horizontal is called Recumbent Fold
 Folds
Recumbent Fold:
• This is a fold whose limbs are bent back on
themselves almost horizontally.

Chevron Fold:
• Usually the crest and troughs of a fold are
rounded, but sometimes the folds are
characterised by sharp crests and troughs. Such
folds where the crests and troughs are sharp
and angular are called Chevron Folds.
• Similar (Shear) Folds
• In similar (shear) folds all layers are deformed
to a similar shape, and the bed thicknesses are
constant in a direction parallel to the axial plane
. This produces an increase of true thickness at
the hinges and a decrease on the limbs. Intense
folding of metamorphic rocks at a time when
temperature and pressure were high is usually
of this type.
 Folds
Similar Folding:
• In this folding the bedding planes are
similar having the dame shape
downwards or upwards so the beds
near the crest are thicker and the beds
at the limbs are thinner.
 Folds
Parallel Folding:
• In this type of folding the bedding
plane remains parallel through but
because of this anticlines, which are
sharp, becomes rounded and more
broad. Similar Synclines, which are
broad and rounded, becomes sharper
with depth.
 Causes and Effects
• Most of the important folds, as already pointed
out, are due to tectonic causes. But a few folds
of a minor type are due to non-tectonic causes,
• Mainly, the compressive and shear type of
tectonic forces are responsible for the folding
phenomenon.

• Non-tectonic causes like landslides, creeping,

differential compaction, isostatic setting and
glaciations too are responsible for some folds.
 Engineering Consideration of Folds

1. For a major project like a dam, tunnel,

railway station, etc., a site which is highly
folded should be avoided because the
engineer may have to face much troubles
sooner or later as folds are easily
fractured even due to a slight disturbance.
2. If the project is of a scattered nature like
electric or telephonic poles the work can
be carried out without much of a risk.
What you Observe?
What you Observe?
What you
Observe?
Quiz