Stat. & Prob-Unit-I

Noida Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Greater Noida

Statistics & Probability
AAS0303
Unit: I
Descriptive Measures
Dr. Anil Agarwal
B.Tech.-3rd Sem(DS/AIML/AI) Associate Professor
Dept. of Mathematics
Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit I 1

09/28/2023
Sequence of Content
(1) Name of Subject with code, Course and Subject teacher.
(2) Brief Introduction of Faculty.
(3) Evaluation Scheme.
(4) Subject Syllabus.
(5) Branch Wise Application.
(6) Course Objective.
(7) Course Outcomes(COs).
(8) Program Outcomes(POs).
(9) COs and POs Mapping.
(10)Program Specific Outcomes(PSOs)
(11) COs and PSOs Mapping.
(12)Program Educational Objectives(PEOs).
09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I 2

Sequence of Content
(13)Result Analysis.
(14) End Semester Question Paper Templates.
(15) Prequisite /Recap.
(16) Brief Introduction about the Subject.
(17) Unit Content.
(18) Unit Objective.
(19) Topic Objective/Topic Outcome.
(20) Lecture related to topic.
(21) Daily Quiz.
(22) Weekly Assignment.
(23) Topic Links.

Sequence of Content
(24) MCQ(End of Unit).

(25) Glossary questions.
(26) Old question Papers(Sessional + University).
(27) Expected Questions For External Examination.
(28) Recap of Unit.

Faculty Introduction
Name : Dr. Anil Agarwal

Designation: Associate professor
Department: Mathematics
Teaching Experience: 22years
Ph.D. : Agra University, Agra.
09/28/2023 Unit-I 5
Evaluation Scheme
Sl. Subject Periods Evaluation Scheme End
No. Codes Credi t
Subject Name Semester Total
L T P CT TA TOTAL PS TE PE
WEEKS COMPULSORY INDUCTION PROGRAM

1 AAS0303 Statistics and Probability 3 1 0 30 20 50 100 150 4
2 ACSE0306 Discrete Structures 3 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 3
3 ACSE0305 Computer Organization & 3 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 3
Architecture
4 ACSE0302 Object Oriented Techniques 3 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 3
using Java
5 ACSE0301 Data Structures 3 1 0 30 20 50 100 150 4
6 ACSAI0301 Introduction to Artificial 3 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 3
Intelligence
7 ACSE0352 Object Oriented Techniques 0 0 2 25 25 50 1
using Java Lab
8 ACSE0351 Data Structures Lab 0 0 2 25 25 50 1
9 ACSAI0351 Introduction to Artificial 0 0 2 25 25 50 1
Intelligence Lab
10 ACSE0359 Internship Assessment-I 0 0 2 50 50 1
ANC0301/ Cyber Security*/
11 ANC0302 Environmental Science * (Non 2 0 0 30 20 50 50 100 0
Credit)
12 MOOCs** (For B.Tech.

Hons. Degree)
GRAND TOTAL 1100 24

Syllabus of AAS0303
UNIT-I Descriptive measures 8 Hours
Measures of central tendency – mean, median, mode, measures of dispersion – mean deviation, standard
deviation, quartile deviation, variance, Moment, Skewness and kurtosis, least squares principles of curve
fitting, Covariance, Correlation and Regression analysis, Correlation coefficient: Karl Pearson coefficient,
rank correlation coefficient, uni-variate and multivariate linear regression, application of regression
analysis, Logistic Regression, time series analysis- Trend analysis (Least square method).
UNIT-II Probability and Random variable 8 Hours
Probability Definition, The Law of Addition, Multiplication and Conditional Probability, Bayes’ Theorem,
Random variables: discrete and continuous, probability mass function, density function, distribution
function, Mathematical expectation, mean, variance. Moment generating function, characteristic function,
Two dimensional random variables: probability mass function, density function,
UNIT-III Probability distribution 8 Hours
Probability Distribution (Continuous and discrete- Normal, Exponential, Binomial, Poisson distribution),
Central Limit theorem
UNIT-IV Test of Hypothesis & Statistical Inference 8 Hours
Sampling and population, uni-variate and bi-variate sampling, re-sampling, errors in sampling, Sampling
distributions, Hypothesis testing- p value, z test, t test (For mean), Confidence intervals, F test; Chi-square
test, ANOVA: One way ANOVA,
Statistical Inference, Parameter estimation, Least square estimation method, Maximum Likelihood
estimation.
UNIT-V Aptitude-III 8 Hours
Time & Work, Pipe & Cistern, Time, Speed & Distance, Boat & Stream, Sitting Arrangement, Clock &
Calendar.
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Branch Wise Application
• Data Analysis
• Artificial intelligence
• Digital Communication: Information theory and coding.
Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit I

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Course Objective
• The objective of this course is to familiarize the engineers with
concept of Statistical techniques, probability distribution, hypothesis
testing and ANOVA and numerical aptitude. It aims to show case the
students with standard concepts and tools from B. Tech to deal with
advanced level of mathematics and applications that would be
essential for their disciplines.
The student will be able to understand:
• The concept of Descriptive measurements.
• The concept of probability & Random variable.
• Probability distributions.
• The concept of hypothesis testing & Statistical inferences.
• The concept of numerical aptitude.
Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit -I

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Course Outcome
• CO1: Understand the concept of moments, Skewness,
kurtosis, correlation, curve fitting and regression
analysis, Time-Series analysis etc.
• CO2: Understand the concept of Probability and Random variables.
• CO3: Remember the concept of probability to evaluate
probability distributions.
• CO4: Apply the concept of hypothesis testing and estimation
of parameters.
• CO5: Solve the problems of Time & Work, Pipe & Cistern,
Time, Speed & Distance, Boat & Stream, Sitting arrangement,
Clock & Calendar etc.
09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit I 10

Program Outcomes

CO-PO Mapping(CO1)
Sr. Course PO1 PO PO PO4 PO PO PO PO PO PO10 PO11 PO12
No Outcome 2 3 5 6 7 8 9
1 CO 1 3 3 3 3 1 1 2
2 CO 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 2
3 CO 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 1
4 CO 4 3 2 2 3 1 1 1
5 CO.5 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 2
*1= Low *2= Medium *3= High

PSO

CO-PSO Mapping(CO1)
CO PSO 1 PSO 2 PSO 3
3 2 1
CO1
1 2 1
CO2
2 2 2
CO3
3 2 1
CO4
3 2 2
CO5
*1= Low *2= Medium *3= High

Program Educational Objectives(PEOs)
PEO-1: To have an excellent scientific and engineering breadth so as to
comprehend, analyze, design and provide sustainable solutions for real-
life problems using state-of-the-art technologies.
PEO-2: To have a successful career in industries, to pursue higher studies
or to support entrepreneurial endeavors and to face the global
challenges.
PEO-3: To have an effective communication skills, professional attitude,
ethical values and a desire to learn specific knowledge in emerging
trends, technologies for research, innovation and product
development and contribution to society.
PEO-4: To have life-long learning for up-skilling and re-skilling for
successful professional career as engineer, scientist, entrepreneur and
bureaucrat for betterment of society.
Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

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Result Analysis
Branch Semester Sections No. of No. % Passed

enrolled Passed
Students Students
AIML III A, B, C 199 199 100%

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End Semester Question Paper Template
C:\Users\om\
Desktop\Downloads\100 Marks Q

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Prerequisite and Recap(CO1)
 Knowledge of Maths -I of B.Tech.

 Knowledge of Maths -II of B.Tech.
 Knowledge of Basic Statistics.

Brief Introduction about the subject
• In first four modules, we will discuss Statistics and probability.

• In 5th module we will discuss aptitude part.

Unit Content
• Introduction
• Measures of central tendency – mean, median, mode
• Measures of dispersion – mean deviation, standard deviation,
quartile deviation, variance
• Moment
• Skewness and kurtosis
• Least squares principles of curve fitting, Covariance
• Correlation and Regression analysis
• Correlation coefficient: Karl Pearson coefficient, rank correlation
coefficient
• Uni-variate and multivariate linear regression
• Application of regression analysis, Logistic Regression
• Time series analysis- Trend analysis (Least square method).
09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit -I 20
Unit Objective(CO1)
• The objective of this course is to familiarize the engineers with
concept of “Descriptive measurements” in the Statistical
techniques.
• It aims to show case the students with standard concepts and
tools from B. Tech to deal with advanced level of mathematics and
applications that would be essential for their disciplines.

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Topic objective (CO1)
Measures of central tendency:

• To present a brief picture of data- It helps in giving a brief
description of the main feature of the entire data.
• Essential for comparison- It helps in reducing the data to a single
value which is used for doing comparative studies.
• Helps in decision making- Most of the companies use measuring
central tendency to plan and develop their businesses economy.
• Formulation of policies- Many governments rely on this medium
while forming any policies.

Measures of Central Tendency (CO1)
Measures of Central Tendency or Averages:
Definition : According to Prof. Bowley: Averages are “statistical
constants which enable us to comprehend in a single effort the
significance of the whole.”
Types of Measures of Central Tendency: There are five types
of measures of central tendency
Arithmetic Mean or Simple Mean
Median
Mode
Geometric Mean
Harmonic Mean

Measures of Central Tendency (CO1)
Requisites for an Ideal Measure of Central Tendency:
According to Prof. Yule, the following are the characteristics to be
satisfied by an ideal measure of central tendency.
rigidly defined.
readily comprehensible and easy to calculate.
based on all the observations.
suitable for further mathematical treatment.
affected as little as possible by fluctuations of sampling.
not be affected much by extreme values (not due to Prof. Yule).

Arithmetic Mean(CO1)
 Arithmetic Mean:
Definition
Arithmetic mean of a set of observations is their sum divided by
the number of observations, e.g., the arithmetic mean x¯ of
nobservations x1,x2,...,xnis given by:
 In case of the frequencydistributionxi|fi,i=1,2,...,n,where

fi is the frequency of the variable xi,

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In case of grouped or continuous frequency distribution, x is taken as
the mid-value of the correspondingclass.
Example: Find the arithmetic mean of the following frequency
distribution:
Solution:
Computation of mean

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By using formula

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Daily Quiz (CO1)
Example: Calculate the arithmetic mean of the marks from the
following table:
Solution: i=10,D=x-A, A=35,

then =35 +
X F fx D=x-A Fd
5 12 60 5-35=-30 -360
15 18 270 15-35=-20 -360
25 27 675 25-35=-10 -270
35 20 700 35-35=0 0
45 17 765 45-35=10 170
55 6 330 55-35=20 120

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When the values of x or(and)f are large:
The calculation of mean by above formula is time-consuming and
tedious. Therefore the deviations of the given values from any
arbitrary point ‘A’ is taken given as follows:
Let di = xi − A.
Thenfidi=fi(xi− A)=fixi− Afi
Summing both sides over i from 1 to n, we get

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Properties of Arithmetic Mean:

1. Property.: The Algebraic sum of the deviations of all the variates
from their arithmetic mean is zero.
2. Property: The sum of the squares of the deviations of a set of values
is minimum when taken about mean.
3. Property:(Mean of the composite series)if , (i = 1, 2, ..., k) are the
means of k composite series of sizes ni, i = 1, 2, ..., k respectively,
then the mean of the composite series obtained on combining the
component series is givenas:
35

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where is the arithmetic mean of the distribution.
∴
This formula is much more convenient to apply than previous formula.
Any number can serve the purpose of arbitrary point ‘A’ but, usually
the value of x corresponding to the middle part of distribution will be
much moreconvenient.
Grouped or Continuous Frequency Distribution:
The arithmetic is reduced to greater extent by taking
di =where A is an arbitrary point and h is thecommon magnitude of
class interval.
∴ We have hdi= xi − A and proceeding exactly as in previous slide, we
get

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Daily Quiz(CO1)
Example: Calculate the mean for the following frequencydistribution:
Class 0-8 8-16 16-24 24-32 32-40 40-48
interval
Frequency 8 7 16 24 15 7
Solution: Arithmetic mean =25.404

Example: The average salary of male employees in a farm was Rs. 5,200
and that of females was Rs. 4,200. The mean salary of all the
employees was Rs. 5,000.Find the percentage of male and female
employees.
Solution: The percentage of male and female employees are 80 and 20.
5000=

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Median(CO1)
 Median:
Definition: Median of a distribution is the value of the variable which
divides it into two equal parts.
It is the value such that the number of observations above it is equal to
the number of observations below it. The median is thus a positional
average.
 Ungrouped Data:
If the number of observations is odd then median is the middle value
after the values have been arranged in ascending or descending order
of magnitude.
•In case of even number of observations, there are two middle terms
and median is obtained by taking the arithmetic mean of middle
terms.

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Median(CO1)
Example
1. Median of Values 25, 20, 15, 35, 18. Median:20
2. Median of Values 8, 20, 50, 25, 15, 30. Median:22.5
 Discrete FrequencyDistribution
In this case median is obtained by considering
thecumulativefrequencies. The steps involved
i. Find , where N=
ii. See the cumulative frequency (c.f.) just greater than .
iii. corresponding value of x ismedian.

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Median(CO1)
Example: Obtain the median for the following frequencydistribution:
Solution:
i. Find , where N=
ii. See the cumulative frequency (c.f.) just greater than .
iii. corresponding value of x ismedian.

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Median(CO1)
Here N =120, The cumulative frequency just greater than is 65 and

the 2 value of x corresponding to 65 is 5. Therefore, median is 5.
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Median(CO1)
Continuous Frequency Distribution
In this case, the class corresponding to the c.f. justgreater
is calledthe medianclass and the value of medianis
obtained by theformula:
Median
where
• l is the lower limit of theclass,
• fis the frequency of the medianclass,
• h is the magnitude of the medianclass,
• c is the c.f. of the class preceding the medianclass,
• N=

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Daily Quiz(CO1)
Example : find the median wages of the following distribution.
Wages No. of workers
2000-3000 3
3000-4000 5
4000-5000 20
5000-6000 10
6000-7000 5
Solution: The median wage is Rs. 4,675.

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Daily Quiz(CO1)
Wages No of workes f C.F.
2000-3000 3 3
3000-4000 5 8
4000-5000 20 28
5000-6000 10 38
6000-7000 5 43
N=43
,,
Median =4000+50(21.5-8)=4000+675=4675
• L is the lower limit of the class,=4000
• f is the frequency of the medianclass,=20
• h is the magnitude of the medianclass,=1000
• c is the c.f. of the class preceding the median class=8,
• N==43
The median wage is Rs.4,675.

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Median(CO1)
Uses:
 Median is the only average to be used while dealing with qualitative
data which cannot be measured quantitatively but still can be
arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude, e.g., to
find the average intelligence or average honesty among a group of
people.
 It is to be used for determining the typical value in problems
concerning wages, distribution of wealth, etc.

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Mode(CO1)
 Mode:
• Mode is the value which occurs most frequently in a set of
observations and around which the other items of the set cluster
densely.
• It is the point of maximum frequency or the point of greatest
density.
• In other words the mode or modal value of the distribution is that
value of the variate for which frequency is maximum.
Calculation of Mode
 In case of discrete distribution: Mode is the value of x
corresponding to maximum frequency but in any one (or more)of
the following cases.

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Mode(CO1)
i. If the maximum frequency is repeated.
ii. If the maximum frequency occurs in the very beginning or at the
end of distribution .
iii. If there are irregularities in the distribution, the value of mode is
determined by the method of grouping.
 In case of continuous frequency distribution: mode is given by the
formula Mode
where is the lower limit,width and the frequency of the model class
are the frequencies of the classes preceding and succeeding the modal
class respectively. While applying the above formula it is necessary to
see that the class intervals are of the same size.

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Mode(CO1)
 For a symmetrical distribution, mean, median and mode coincide.
When mode is ill defined ,where the method of grouping also fails
its value can be ascertained by the formula
Mode=3Median-2Mean
This measure is called the empirical mode.
Q. Calculate the mode from the following frequency distribution.
Size 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Frequency f 2 5 8 9 12 14 14 15 11 13
Solution: Method of Grouping :

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Mode(CO1)
1 2 3 4 5 6
4 2 7
5 5 13
6 8 17 15
7 9 21 22 29
8 12 26 35
9 14 28 40 43
10 14 29 40
11 15 26 39
12 11 24
13 13

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Mode(CO1)
Since the item 10 occurs maximum number of times i.e.5times,hence

the mode is 10.
1 max.15 11
2max 29 10, 11
3 max 28 9, 10
4 max 40 10, 11, 12
5 max 40 8 9 10
6 max 43 9 10 11

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Mode(CO1)
Q. Find the mode of the following:
Marks 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25
No. of 7 10 16 32 24
candidates
Marks 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45
No. of 18 10 5 1
candidates
Solution: Here the greatest frequency 32 lies in the class 16-20.Hence

modal class is 16-20.But the actual limits of this class are 15.5-20.5.

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Mode(CO1)
Mode

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Daily Quiz(CO3)
Q.1 Calculate the mean, median and mode of the following data-
Wages (in Rs) 0- 20-40 40- 60-80 80- 100- 120-140
20 60 100 120
No. of 6 8 10 12 6 5 3
Workers

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Recap(CO1)
 Measures of central tendency

 Mean
 Mode
 Median

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Topic Objective (CO1)
Measuring Dispersion:
We will measure the Dispersion of given data by calculating:
Range
Inter quartile range
Mean deviation
Standard deviation
Variance
Coefficient of Variation

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Measures of Dispersion(CO1)
Definition
• Measures of dispersion are descriptive statistics that describe how
similar a set of scores are to each other
– The more similar the scores are to each other, the lower the
measure of dispersion will be
– The less similar the scores are to each other, the higher the
– In general, the more spread out a distribution is, the larger the

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Measures of Dispersion(CO-1)
• Which of the distributions 125
of scores has the larger 100

75
dispersion? 50
25
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• The upper distribution has

more dispersion because 125
the scores are more 100
spread out.
75
50
• That is, they are less 25
similar to each other. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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PROPERTIES OF A GOOD MEASURE OF
DISPERSION(CO1)
 Easy to understand
 Simple to calculate
 Uniquely defined
 Based on all observations
 Not affected by extreme observations
 Capable of further algebraic treatment

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MEASURES OF DISPERSION(CO1)
Absolute Relative
Expressed in the In the form of ratio

same units in which or percentage, so is
data is expressed independent of
units
Ex: Rupees, Kgs, It is also called

Ltr, Km etc. Coefficient of
Dispersion

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Measures of Dispersion(CO1)
• There are some measures of dispersion:

– Range
– Inter quartile range
– Mean deviation
– Standard deviation
– Variance
– Coefficient of Variation

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1.RANGE (R) (CO1)
RANGE:-
 It is the simplest measures ofdispersion
 It is defined as the difference between thelargest and smallest
values in theseries
R = L –S
R = Range, L = Largest Value, S = SmallestValue
Coefficient of Range

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS – RANGE(CO1)
Individual Series:-
Q1: Find the range &Coefficient of Range for the following data: 20, 35,
25, 30,15
Solution:-
L = Largest Value=35
S = SmallestValue=15
(Range)R = L –S=35-15=20
Coefficient of Range=

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS – RANGE(CO1)
Continuous Frequency Distribution:

Q3: Find the range &Coefficient of Range:
Size 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30

F 4 9 15 30 40
Solution:- L = Upper limit of Largest class=30

S =Lower limit of SmallestValue=5
(Range)R = L –S=30-5=25
Coefficient of Range=

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Daily Quiz – RANGE(CO1)
Q1: Find the range & Coefficient of Range for the following data:
25, 38, 45, 30, 15
Ans:30,0.5
Q2: Find the range & Coefficient of Range.
Q3: Find the range & Coefficient of Range.

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RANGE(CO1)
MERITS DEMERITS
 Simple to understand
 Can’t be calculated in
open ended distributions
 Easy to calculate
 Not based on all the
 Widely used in
observations
statistical quality
 Affected by sampling
control
fluctuations
 Affected by extreme
values

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2. INTERQUARTILE RANGE & QUARTILE
DEVIATION(CO1)
 Interquartile Range is the difference between the
upper quartile (Q3) and the lower quartile (Q1)
 It covers dispersion of middle 50% of the items of the series
 Symbolically, Interquartile Range = Q3 – Q1
 Quartile Deviation is half of the interquartile range. It is also
called Semi Interquartile Range.
𝑄 3 −𝑄1
 Symbolically, Quartile Deviation =
2
 Coefficient of Quartile Deviation: It is the relative
measure of quartile deviation.
 Coefficient of Q.D. =

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS – IQR & QD(CO1)
Q1: Find interquartile range, quartiledeviation and coefficient of

quartiledeviation:28, 18, 20, 24, 27, 30,15.
Solution:
Arranging data in ascending order
15,18,20,24,27,28,30
Q3 =28
Symbolically, Interquartile Range = Q3 –Q1=28-18=10
Quartile Deviation=
Coefficient of Q.D. ==

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Q2. Find interquartile range, quartile deviation and coefficient of
quartile deviation:
X 10 20 30 40 50 60
F 2 8 20 35 42 20
X F C.F.
10 2 2
20 8 10
30 20 30
40 35 65
50 42 107
60 20 127
N=127

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Solution:
Q3 =50
Symbolically, Interquartile Range = Q3 –Q1=50-40 =10
Quartile Deviation =
Coefficient of Q.D. = =

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Q3. Age 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100
Solution: Persons 4 10 15 20 11
Calculation of :
=4020=41.33
Calculation of : =45
=76
Symbolically, Interquartile Range = Q3 –Q1=76-41.33 =34.67
Quartile Deviation =
Coefficient of Q.D. = =

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X F C.F.
0-20 4 4
20-40 10 14
40-60 15 29
60-80 20 49
80-100 11 60
N=60

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Daily Quiz – IQR & QD(CO1)
Q1: Find quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile
deviation of the followings:
4,8,10,7,15,11,18,14,12,16
Ans: 3.75, 0.32
Q2: X 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 60

F 2 8 20 35 42 20
Ans: 10, 5, 0.11
Q3: Age 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100

Persons 4 10 15 20 11
Ans: 14.33, 0.19

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3. MEAN DEVIATION (M.D.) (CO1)
 It is also called Average Deviation
 It is defined as the arithmetic average of the deviation of the
various items of a series computed from measures of central
tendency like mean or median.
There are some formulas to calculate mean deviation.

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS-M.D.(CO1)
Q1: Calculate M.D. from Mean & Median & coefficient of Mean
Deviation from thefollowing data: 20, 22, 25, 38, 40, 50, 65, 70,75.
Solution:
= 40
Table of Deviation from mean and from median: Next ppt

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS – M.D.(CO1)
Marks X Deviation from mean 45 Deviation from median 40
20 25 20
22 23 18
25 20 15
38 7 2
40 5 0
50 5 10
65 20 25
70 25 30
75 30 35
N=9,

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M.D from Mean

Coefficient of
M.D from Median
Coefficient of

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Q2: Calculate M.D. from Mean & Median & coefficient of Mean
Deviation from the following data:
x F c.f. f Fx f
Solution:
20 8 8 20 160 160 21 168
30 12 20 10 120 360 11 132
40 20 40 0 0 800 1 20
50 10 50 10 100 500 9 90
60 6 56 20 120 360 19 114
70 4 60 30 120 280 29 116
N= 2460
60

M.D from Median

Coefficient of
Mean
M.D from Mean
Coefficient of
09/28/2023 Aakansha Vyas NMB-103 Unit-1 73

Q3: Calculate M.D. from Mean & coefficient of Mean Deviation from
the following data: Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Solution:
No.of students 5 8 15 16 6
Marks x F C.f. Fx f f
0-10 5 5 5 25 22 110 23 115

10-20 1 8 13 120 12 96 13 104
5
20-30 2 15 28 375 2 30 3 45
5
30-40 3 16 44 560 8 128 7 112
5
40-50 4 6 50 270 18 108 17 102
5
N=
50
09/28/2023 Aakansha Vyas NMB-103 Unit-1 74
M.D from Mean

Coefficient of
Median
M.D from Median

Coefficient of

MEAN DEVIATION(CO-1)
Merits Demerits
 Ignoring ‘±’ signs are not
 Simple to understand appropriate
 Easy to compute  Not accurate for Mode
 Less effected by extreme  Difficult to calculate if
items value of Mean or Median
 Useful in fields like
comes in fractions
Economics, Commerce  Not capable of further
etc.
 Comparisons about
algebraic treatment
 Not used in statistical
formation of different
series can be easily made conclusions.
as deviations are taken
from a central value

09/28/2023 76
4. Variance(CO1)
• Variance is defined as the average of the square

deviations:
2  X    2
 
N
•Variance is the mean of the squared deviation scores.

•The larger the variance is, the more the scores deviate, on average,
away from the mean.
•The smaller the variance is, the less the scores deviate, on average,
from the mean

09/28/2023 77
5. Standard Deviation(CO1)
• When the deviate scores are squared in variance, their unit of

measure is squared as well
– E.g. If people’s weights are measured in pounds, then the
variance of the weights would be expressed in pounds2 (or
squared pounds)
• Since squared units of measure are often awkward to deal
with, the square root of variance is often used instead
– The standard deviation is the square root of variance
• Standard deviation =
• Variance = (Standard deviation)2

09/28/2023 78
Computational Formula(CO1)
• When calculating variance, it is often easier to use a

computational formula which is algebraically equivalent to
the definitional formula:
 X 2
X  X 
2 2

2 N
 
N

N
2 is the population variance, X is a score,  is the population

mean, and N is the number of scores.
Q1. Calculate the Variance of the following
9,8,6,5,8,6
,

09/28/2023 79
Computational Formula Example(CO1)
X X2 X- (X-)2
9 81 2 4
8 64 1 1
6 36 -1 1
5 25 -2 4
8 64 1 1
6 36 -1 1
 = 42  = 306 =0  = 12

09/28/2023 80
Computational Formula Example(CO1)
X
2

 X
2
2 N
 
N
2
306  42
 6
6
306  294

6
12

6
 2

09/28/2023 81
Variance (CO1)
For an Individual Series : If are the values of the variable

under consideration , is defined as
𝑛
∑ ( 𝑥𝑖− 𝑥)
2
2 𝑖= 1
𝜎 = ;
𝑛
For a frequency Distribution: If are the values of a variable

with the corresponding frequencies respectively is defined as

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Variance (CO1)
∑ 𝑓 𝑖 ( 𝑥 𝑖 − 𝑥 )
2
2 𝑖=1
𝜎 = ;
𝑁
where
Note. In case of a frequency distribution with class intervals, the values
of are the midpoints of the intervals.
Example1. Find the Variance and standard deviation for the following
individual series.
3 6 8 10 18
Solution:

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Variance (CO1)
3 -6 36
6 -3 9
8 -1 1
10 1 1
18 9 81
n=5,
,
Standard deviation=

09/28/2023 84
Variance (CO1)
• Example: Find the variance and standard deviation for the

following frequency distribution.
Marks 5-15 15-25 25-35 35-45 45-55 55-65

No. of 10 20 25 20 15 10
students
• Sol.

09/28/2023 85
Variance (CO1)
Marks No.of Mid-Point
Students(
5-15 10 10 100 -24 5760
15-25 20 20 400 -14 3920
25-35 25 30 750 -4 400

35-45 20 40 800 6 720
45-55 15 50 750 16 3840
55-65 10 60 600 26 6760
N=100 =3400 =21400

09/28/2023 86
Variance (CO1)
Standard deviation ()=

09/28/2023 87
Daily Quiz(CO1)
Q1. Find the mean of the following data:

14,20,30,22,25,18,40,50,55 and 65
Q2. Find the mode of the following distribution:

6,4,3,5,6,3,3,2,4,3,4,3,3,4,4,2,3

09/28/2023 88
Weekly Assignment(CO1)
Q1. Discuss the scope of Statistics.

Q2. State the objectives and essentials of an Ideal average.
Q3. Find the mean of the following data:
15,20,30,22,25,18,40,50,55 and 65
Q4. Find the mode of the following distribution:
7,4,3,5,6,3,3,2,4,3,4,3,3,4,4,2,3

09/28/2023 89
Topic Objective (CO1)
Moments:
• In mathematical statistics it involve a basic calculation. These
calculations can be used to find a probability distribution's
mean, variance, and skewness.

09/28/2023 90
Moments (CO1)
Moments: The moment of a distribution are the arithmetic

means of the various powers of the deviations of items from
some given number.
 Moments about mean (central moment)
 Moments about any arbitrary number (Raw Moment)
 Moments about origin

09/28/2023 91
Summary (CO1)
Individual data: Moment about mean
Frequency distribution: Moment about mean
• Individual data: Moment about any value
Frequency distribution:
Moment about any value
• Individual data: Moment about origin
Frequency distribution:Moment about origin

09/28/2023 92
Central Moments (CO1)
 Moment about mean (central moment):
 For an Individual Series :If are the values of the variable under
consideration , the moment about mean is defined as
Moment about mean
 For a frequency Distribution: If are the values of a variable with

the corresponding frequencies respectively then moment about
the mean is defined as

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∑ 𝑓 𝑖( 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )
𝑟
𝑖 =1
𝜇𝑟 = ; r =0 , 1 , 2 … .
𝑁
where
in particular
Note. In case of a frequency distribution with class intervals, the values
of are the midpoints of the intervals.
Example1. Find the first four moments for the following individual
series.
Solution: Calculation of Moments
3 6 8 10 18
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For any distribution,
For any distribution,, for r=2,
Therefore for any distribution , coincides with the variance of the

distribution.
Similarly,

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Now ==9
==,
==,
==2,
==,

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For any distribution, for r=1
For any distribution,, for r=2,
Therefore for any distribution , coincides with the variance of the

distribution.
Similarly,
and so on.

09/28/2023 98
• Example: Find for the following frequency distribution.
Marks 5-15 15-25 25-35 35-45 45-55 55-65

No.of 10 20 25 20 15 10
students
• Sol. Calculation of Moments:

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Marks No.of Mid-
Stude Poin
nts( t
5-15 10 10 100 -24 -240 5760 -138240 3317760
15-25 20 20 400 -14 -280 3920 -54880 768320
25-35 25 30 750 -4 -100 400 -1600 6400

35-45 20 40 800 6 120 720 4320 25920
45-55 15 50 750 16 240 3840 61440 983040
55-65 10 60 600 26 260 6760 175760 4569760
N=100 =34 =0 =21400 =46800 =9671200
00

09/28/2023 100

09/28/2023 101
SHEPARD’S CORRECTIONS FOR MOMENTS:

While
computing moments for frequency distribution with class intervals, we
take variables as the midpoint of class intervals which means that we
have assumed the frequencies concentrated at the midpoints of class
intervals. The above assumption is true when the distribution is
symmetrical and the no. of class intervals is not greater than of the
range, otherwise the computation of moments will have error called
grouping error.
This error is corrected by the following formula given by
W.F.Sheppard.
𝒉𝟐
𝝁𝟐= 𝝁𝟐 −
𝟏𝟐
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1 2 7 4
𝜇 4=𝜇4 − h 𝜇2 + h
2 240
Where h is the width of class interval while require no correction.
These formulae are known as Sheppard’s corrections.
Example: Find the corrected values of the following moments using
Sheppard's correction. The width of classes in the distribution is 10.
Sol. We have h=10

09/28/2023 103

09/28/2023 104
Raw Moments (CO1)
 MOMENTS ABOUT AN ARBITARY NUMBER(Raw

Moments):
 If are the values of a variable with the corresponding frequencies
respectively then moment about the number is defined as
𝑛
1
𝜇′ 𝑟 = ∑ 𝑓 𝑖 ( 𝑥 𝑖 − 𝐴 ) ;𝑟 =0,1,2,…
𝑟
𝑁 𝑖=1
Where,
For

09/28/2023 105
Raw Moments (CO1)
For
For
For and so on.
In Calculation work, if we find that there is some common factor (>1) in
values of we can ease our calculation work by defining
In that case , we have

09/28/2023 106
Raw Moments (CO1)
Note:For an individual series,

1.
2.

09/28/2023 107
Moments about the origin (CO1)
 MOMENTS ABOUT THE ORIGIN:

If be the values of a variable with corresponding frequencies
respectively then moment about the origin is defined as
𝑛
1
𝑣𝑟 =
𝑁
∑ 𝑓 𝑖 𝑥 𝑖𝑟 ; r = 0 , 1 , 2 , … .
𝑖 =1
Where,
For
For
For and so on.

09/28/2023 108
Relations (CO1)
RELATION BETWEEN
We know that,

09/28/2023 109
Relations (CO1)
Using binomial theorem
Putting r=2,3,4, we get
ence, we have the following relations:

09/28/2023 110
Relations (CO1)
• RELATION BETWEEN

09/28/2023 111
KARL PERSON’S COEFFICIENTS(CO1)
KARL PERSON’S COEFFICIENTS:
Karl Pearson defined the following four coefficients based upon the first
four moments of a frequency distribution about it mean:
(coefficients)
(coefficients)
The practical use of this coefficients is to measure the skewness and

kurtosis of a frequency distribution .These coefficients are pure numbers
independent of units of measurement.

09/28/2023 112
Example1 : The first three moments of a distribution about the

value “2” of the variable are 1,16 and 40.Show that the mean is
3,variance is 15 and
Solution: We have A=2,, and
We have that
Variance=

09/28/2023 113
Example 2:The first moments of a distribution about the value “35”

areFind the values of
Solution:

09/28/2023 114
Example 3:Calculate the variance and third central moment from

the following data.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 9 26 59 72 52 29 7 1
,
0 1 -4 -4 16 -64
1 9 -3 -27 81 -243
2 26 -2 -52 104 -208
3 59 -1 -59 59 -59
4 72 0 0 0 0

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1.9805

09/28/2023 116
Moments about Mean:
Variance=1.97975
Also
=0.0178997
Third central moment

09/28/2023 117
Example 4: The first four moments of a distribution about the value

‘4’of the
variable are -1.5,17,and 108.Find the moments about mean, about
origin;also find the moments about the point
Solution: We have A=4,
Moments about mean

09/28/2023 118
Moments about origin:
Calculation of
=0.492377 =0.654122
Moments about the point
244

09/28/2023 119
Daily Quiz(CO1)
Q1. The first four moments of a distribution are 3,

10.5,40.5,168.Comment upon the nature of the distribution.
Q2. For a distribution, the mean is 10,variance is 16, is 1 and is

4. Find the first four moment about origin.

09/28/2023 120
Skewness
• It tells us whether the distribution is normal or not
• It gives us an idea about the nature and degree of
concentration of observations about the mean
• The empirical relation of mean, median and mode are based
on a moderately skewed distribution

09/28/2023 121
Skewness (CO1)
Skewness:
•I t means lack of symmetry.
•It gives us an idea about the shape of the curve which we can draw with
the help of the given data.
•A distribution is said to be skewed if—
Mean, median and mode fall at different points, i.e.,
Mean ƒ= Median ƒ= Mode;
•Quartiles are not equidistant from median; and
•The curve drawn with the help of the given data is not symmetrical
but stretched more to one side than to the other.

09/28/2023 122
Skewness (CO1)
S y m m e t r i c a l D i s t r i b u ti o n :
A symmetric distribution is a type of distribution where the left
side of the distribution mirrors the right side. In a symmetric
distribution, the mean, mode and median all fall at the same
point.

09/28/2023 123
Skewness (CO1)
M e a s u r e s o f S ke w n e s s :
The measures of skewness are:
•Sk = M − Md ,
•Sk = M − Mo ,
•Sk = (Q3 − Md ) − (Md − Q 1 ),
where M is the mean, Md , the median, Mo , the mode, Q1 , the first quartile
deviation and Q3 , the third quartile deviation of the distribution.
These are the absolute measures of skewness.
•C o e ffi c i e n t s o f S k e w n e s s : For comparing two series we do not
calculate these absolute measures but we calculate the relative measures
called the coefficients of skewness which are pure numbers independent of
units of measurement.

09/28/2023 124
Skewness (CO1)
The following are the coefficients of skewness:
• Prof. Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Skewness,
• Prof. Bowley’sCoefficient of Skewness,
• Coefficient of Skewness based uponMoments.
P r o f . K a r l Pearson’s C o e ffi c i e n t o f Skewness:
Definition
•It is defined as:
where σ is the standard deviation of the distribution. If mode is ill-

=3Median-2mean

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Skewness (CO1)
defined, then using the empirical relation,

Mo = 3Md − 2M, for a moderately asymmetrical distribution, we have
• From above two formulas, we observe that Sk = 0 if M = Mo = Md .
• Hence for a symmetrical distribution, mean, median and mode
coincide.
• Skewness is positive if M > Mo or M > Md , and negative if M <
Mo or M < Md .
• Limits are: |Sk | ≤ 3 or −3 ≤ Sk ≤ 3.
• However, in practice, these limits are rarely attained.

09/28/2023 126
Skewness (CO1)
C o e ffi c i e n t o f S k e w n e s s b a s e d o n M o m e n t
Definition:
It is definedas:
where are Pearson’s Coefficients and defined as:
Sk= 0, if either = 0 or = −3. Thus Sk= 0, if and only if = 0.
Thus for a symmetrical distribution = 0.
In this respect is taken as a measure of skewness.

09/28/2023 127
Skewness (CO1)
•The coefficient of skewness based upon moments is to be regarded as

without sign.
•The Pearson’s and Bowley’s coefficients of skewness can be positive as
well as negative.
P o s i ti v e l y S ke w e d D i s t r i b u ti o n : The skewness
is positive if the larger tail of the distribution lies towards the higher
values of the variate (the right),i.e., if the curve drawn
with the help of the given data is
stretched more to the right than
to the left.

09/28/2023 128
Skewness (CO1)
N e g a ti v e l y S ke w e d D i s t r i b u ti o n :
The skewness is negative if the larger tail of the distribution lies
towards the lower values of the variate (the left), i.e., if the curve
drawn with the help of the given data is stretched more to the left
than to the right.

09/28/2023 129
Skewness (CO1)
Pearson’s a n d C o e ffi c i e n t s :
Q1. Karl Pearson coefficient of skewness of a distribution is 0.32, its

standard deviation is 6.5 and mean is 29.6. find the mode of the
distribution.
Solution: Given that

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Kurtosis:
• Describe the concepts of kurtosis
• Explain the different measures of kurtosis
• Explain how kurtosis describe the shape of a distribution.

09/28/2023 131
Kurtosis (CO1)
K u r t o s i s
•If we know the measures of central tendency, dispersion and
skewness, we still cannot form a complete idea about the
distribution. Let us consider the figure in which all the three
curves
•A, B, and C are symmetrical about the mean and have the same
range.

09/28/2023 132
Kurtosis (CO1)
Definition: Kurtosis is also known as Convexity of the Frequency Curvedue to
Prof. KarlPearson.
• It enables us to have an idea about the flatness or peaknessof the
frequencycurve.
• It is measure by the coefficient β2 or its derivationγ2 givenas:
• Curve of the type A which is neither flat nor peaked is called the normal
curve or mesokurtic curve and for such curve = 3, i.e., γ2 = 0.
• Curve of the type B which is flatter than the normal curve is known as
platycurtic curve and for such curve <3, i.e., γ2 <0.

09/28/2023 133
Kurtosis (CO1)
Curve of the type C which is more peaked than the normal curveis called leptokurtic
curveand for such curve >3, i.e., γ2 >0.
Q2. For a distribution, the mean is 10,variance is 16,γ1 is +1and is 4. Comment
about the nature ofdistribution. Also find third central moment.
S o l u ti o n : =64,=16,
Since γ1 = +1, the distribution is moderately positively skewed,i.e,

if we draw the curve of the given distribution, it will have longer tail towards the
right.
Further, since = 4 >3, the distribution is leptokurtic, i.e.,
it will be slightly more peaked than the normal curve.

09/28/2023 134
Kurtosis (CO1)
Example 3: The first four moment about the working mean 28.5 of a
distribution are 0.294,7.144,42.409 and 454.98. Calculate the first four
moment about mean. Also evaluate and and comment upon the
skewness and kurtosis of the distribution.
Solution:,Moment about mean

09/28/2023 135
Kurtosis (CO1)
Skewness : is positive so
Kurtosis: so distribution is leptokutic.

09/28/2023 136
Daily Quiz(CO1)
Q1. Find all four central moments and Discuss Skewness and
Kurtosis for the following distribution-
Range of 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12

Expenditures
No. of 38 292 389 212 69
families

09/28/2023 137
Daily Quiz(CO1)
x f fx x-7 F(x-7) F(x-7)*2 F(x-7)*3 F(x-7)*4
3 38 114 -4 -152 608 -2432 9728
5 292 1460 -2 -584 1168 -2336 4672
7 389 2723 0 0 0 0 0
9 212 1908 2 424 848 1696 3392
11 69 759 4 276 1104 4416 17664
100 6964 0 3728 1344 35456

0

Kurtosis (CO1)
Moment about mean
Skewness : is positive so
Kurtosis: so distribution is platykurtic.

09/28/2023 139
Skewness & Kurtosis (CO1)
Example : The First four moments of a distribution about are Find the
first four moments about mean. Discuss the Skewness and Kurtosis and
also comment upon the nature of the distribution.
Solution: Here We have
Moments about mean

09/28/2023 140
Skewness: The Coefficients of skewness,

Hence distribution is symmetrical.
Kurtosis: Since
Hence distribution is Platykurtic.

09/28/2023 141
Example :Calculate the first four moments about mean from the
following data.
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
5 38 65 92 70 40 10
Also find the measures of skewness and kurtosis.

Since

09/28/2023 142
,
2 5 -3 -15 45 -135 405

2.5 38 -2 -76 152 -304 608
3 65 -1 -65 65 -65 65
A=3.5 92 0 0 0 0 0
4 70 1 70 70 70 70
4.5 40 2 80 160 320 640
5 10 3 30 90 270 810

09/28/2023 143
Moments about Mean:
Variance=
Also
=0.009840

Third central moment.
.
Fourth central moment.
Skewness: The Coefficients of skewness,
Hence distribution is positive skewed.

Kurtosis: Since
Hence distribution is Platykurtic.

09/28/2023 145
Recap(CO1)
 Moments
 Relation between
 Moment generating function.
 Skewness
 Kurtosis

09/28/2023 146
Topic objectives(CO1)
Curve Fitting:
• The objective of curve fitting is to find the parameters of a
mathematical model that describes a set of data in a way that
minimizes the difference between the model and the data.

09/28/2023 147
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Curve Fitting :Curve fitting means an exact relationship between

two variables by algebraic equation. It enables us to represent the
relationship between two variables by simple algebraic expressions
e.g. polynomials, exponential or logarithmic functions. .It is also
used to estimate the values of one variable corresponding to the
specified values of other variables.
METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES: Method of least squares

provides a unique set of values to the constants and hence suggests
a curve of best fit to the given data.

09/28/2023 148
Curve Fitting (CO1)
• FITTING A STRAIGHT LINE: Let be n sets of observations of related
data and
(1)
Normal equations
(2)
(3)
If n is odd then,
If n is even then,

09/28/2023 149
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Q. Fit a straight line to the following data by least square

method.
0 1 2 3 4
1 1.8 3.3 4.5 6.3
Sol. Let the straight line obtained from the given data be
(1)
then the normal equations are
(2)
(3) m=5

09/28/2023 150
Curve Fitting (CO1)
From(2) and (3), 16.9=
Solving we get
Required lines is

09/28/2023 151
Curve Fitting (CO1)
 FITTING OF AN EXPONENTIAL CURVE
Let
Taking logarithm on both sides, we get
Where ,
The normal equation for (1) are
Solving these, we get A and B.

Then

09/28/2023 152
Curve Fitting (CO1)
 FITTING OF THE CURVE

Let
Where ,
The normal equation to (1) are
Which results A and B on solving and

09/28/2023 153
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Where ,
This is a linear equation in and
For estimating equation to are
Where n is the number of Pairs of values of

Ultimately,
Example 2. Obtain a relation of the form for the following data by the
method of least squares:

09/28/2023 154
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Sol. The curve to be fitted is
2 8.3 0.9191 4 1.8382

3 15.4 1.1872 9 3.5616
4 33.1 1.5198 16 6.0792
5 65.2 1.8142 25 9.0710
6 127.4 2.1052 36 12.6312
455

09/28/2023 155
Curve Fitting (CO1)
The normal equations are
Substituting the above values, we get

7.5455=5A+20B and 33.1812=20A+90B
On solving A=0.31 and B=0.3
Hence the required curve is

09/28/2023 156
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Normal equations are .

normal equations are
and

09/28/2023 157
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Normal equations are
and

normal equations are
and
Where n is the numbers of pairs of values of .

09/28/2023 158
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Where m is no.of points (


09/28/2023 159
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Example 3. By the method of least squares, find the curve that

best fits the following data:
1 2 3 4 5
1.8 5.1 8.9 14.1 19.8
Sol. Normal equations are
Let us form a table as below:

09/28/2023 160
Curve Fitting (CO1)

09/28/2023 161
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Substituting these values in equation(1) and (2),we get
194.1=55+225
822.9=225+979
and b=
Hence required parabolic curve is
Taking logarithm on both side we get

09/28/2023 162
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Where and
are determined by above equations. Normal equations are
obtained as that of the straight line.
Example 4. Fit the curve to following data:

09/28/2023 163
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Solution:
Which is of the form
Where

09/28/2023 164
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Normal equation are
X Y XY
.5 1620 -0.30103 3.20952 -0.96616 0.09062
1 1000 0 3 0 0
1.5 750 0.17609 2.87506 0.50627 0.03101
2 620 0.30103 2.79239 0.84059 0.09062
2.5 520 0.39794 2.716 1.08080 0.15836
3 460 0.47712 2.66276 1.27046 0.22764
Total

09/28/2023 165
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Hence the curve


09/28/2023 166
Curve Fitting (CO1)
Example 5. Use the method of least squares to the fit the curve:
to the following table of values:
X 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 1 2
Y 21 11 7 6 5 6
 Solution: Let given curve is


09/28/2023 167
Curve Fitting (CO1)
0.1 21 210 6.64078 3.16228 100

0.2 11 55 4.91935 2.23607 25
0.4 7 17.5 4.42719 1.58114 6.25
0.5 6 12 4.24264 1.41421 4
1 5 5 5 1 1
2 6 3 8.48528 0.70711 0.25
4.2 302.5 33.71524 10.10081 136.5

09/28/2023 168
Curve Fitting (CO1)
so we have
Hence the curve is

09/28/2023 169
Daily Quiz(CO1)
Q. Fit a second degree parabola to the following data-
0 1 2 3 4
1 0 3 10 21

09/28/2023 170
Recap(CO1)
 Moments
 Moment generating function.
 Skewness & kurtosis
 Curve fitting

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Correlation
• Identify the direction and strength of a correlation between two
factors.
• Compute and interpret the Pearson correlation coefficient and
test for significance.
• Compute and interpret the coefficient of determination.
• Compute and interpret the Spearman correlation coefficient and
test for significance.

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Correlation(CO1)
 C o r r e l a ti o n : In a bivariate distribution we are interested to find
out i f there is any correlation between the two variables under study.
• If the change in one variable affects a change in the other variable, the
variables are said to be correlated.
P o s i ti v e C o r r e l a ti o n
• If the two variables deviate in the same direction, i.e., if the increase (or
decrease) in one results in a corresponding increase (or decrease) in the
other, correlation is said to be direct or positive.
• For example, the correlation between (i) the heights and weights of a
group of persons, and (ii) the income and expenditure; is positive.

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Correlation(CO1)
 N e g a ti v e C o r r e l a ti o n :
•If the two variables deviate in the opposite directions, i.e., if increase (or
decrease) in one results in corresponding decrease (or increase) in the
other, correlation is said to be diverse or negative.
• For example, the correlation between (i) the price and demand of a
commodity, and (ii) the volume and pressure of a perfect gas; is
negative.
 P e r f e c t C o r r e l a ti o n
•Correlation is said to be perfect if the deviation in one variable is followed
by a corresponding and proportional deviation in the other.

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Correlation(CO1)
S c a tt e r D i a g r a m :
•For the bivariate distribution (xi, yi ); i = 1, 2, ..., n, if the values of the
variables X and Y are plotted along the x-axis and y-axis respectively in the
x-y plane, the diagram of dots so obtained is known as scatter diagram.
•It is the simplest way of the diagrammatic representation of bivariate data.
•From the scatter diagram, we can form an idea whether the variables are
correlated or not.
•For example, if the points are very dense, i.e., very close to each other, a
correlation is expected.
•If the points are widely scattered, a poor correlation is expected.
•This method, however, is not suitable if the number of observations is
fairly large.

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Correlation(CO1)
C o r r e l a ti o n C o e ffi c i e n t :
•The correlation coefficientdue to Karl Pearson is defined as a measure of
intensity or degree of linear relationship between twovariables.
• K a r l Pearson’sC o r r e l a ti o n C o e ffi c i e n t
•Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient between two variables X and Y , is
denoted by r (X, Y ) or rXY, is a measure of linear relationship between them
and is definedas:
• r(X,Y)=
•f (xi, yi); i = 1, 2, ...,n is the bivariate distribution, then
• Cov(X,Y)=E[{X−E(X)}{Y−E(Y)}]

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Correlation(CO1)
KARL PEARSON’S CO –EFFICIENT OF CORRELATION(OR
PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION CO-EFFICIENT)
Correlation co-efficient between two variable usually denoted by is a
numerical measure of linear relationship between them and defined as

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Correlation(CO1)
Or
Here is the no. of pairs of values of
Note: Correlation co efficient is independent of change of origin and
scale.
Let us define two new variables
where
Then

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Correlation(CO1)
Q. Find the coefficient of correlation between the values of

1 3 5 7 8 10
8 12 15 17 18 20
Sol.
1 8 1 64 8
3 12 9 144 36
5 15 25 225 75
7 17 49 289 119
8 18 64 324 144
10 20 100 400 200

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Correlation(CO1)
Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is given by
Q. Find the co-efficient of correlation for the following table:
10 14 18 22 26 30
Solution: Let 18 12 24 6 30 36

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Correlation(CO1)
10 18 -3 -1 9 1 3
14 12 -2 -2 4 4 4
18 24 -1 0 1 0 0
22 6 0 -3 0 9 0
26 30 1 1 1 1 1
30 36 2 2 4 4 4
Total

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Correlation(CO1)
Hence,n=6,
Then
 Calculation of co-efficient of correlation for a bivariate frequency

distribution.
• If the bivariate data on is presented on a two way correlation table
and is the frequency of a particular rectangle
• In the correlation table then

09/28/2023 182
Correlation(CO1)
Since change of origin and scale do not affect the co-efficient of

correlation.where the new variables are properly chosen.
Q. The following table given according to age the frequency of
marks obtained by 100 students is an intelligence test:

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Correlation(CO1)
Marks 18 19 20 21 total
10-20 4 2 2 8
20-30 5 4 6 4 19
30-40 6 8 10 11 35
40-50 4 4 6 8 22
50-60 2 4 4 10
60-70 2 3 1 6
Total 19 22 31 28 100
Calculate the coefficient of correlation between age and intelligence.

Solution: Age and intelligence be denoted by respectively.

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Correlation(CO1)
x 18 19 20 21 f
y
15 10-20 4 2 2 8 -3 -24 72 30
25 20-30 5 4 6 4 19 -2 -38 76 20
35 30-40 6 8 10 11 35 -1 -35 35 9
45 40-50 4 4 6 8 22 0 0 0 0
55 50-60 2 4 4 10 1 10 10 2
65 60-70 2 3 1 6 2 12 24 -2
19 22 31 28 100 total -75 217 59
-2 -1 0 1 Total
-38 -22 0 28 -32

76 22 0 28 126
56 16 0 -13 59

Correlation(CO1)
Let us define two new variables

09/28/2023 186
Rank Correlation(CO1)
RANK CORRELATION:
Definition: Assuming that no two individuals are bracketed equal in
either classification,each of the variables X and Y takes the values
1, 2, ...,n.
Hence, the rank correlation coefficient between A andBisdenoted
by r, and is givenas:

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Question. Compute the rank correlation coefficient for the

following data.
Person A B C D E F G H I J
Rank in 9 10 6 5 7 2 4 8 1 3
maths
Rank in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
physics
Sol. Here the ranks are given and

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Person D=
A 9 1 8 64
B 10 2 8 64
C 6 3 3 9
D 5 4 1 1
E 7 5 2 4
F 2 6 -4 16
G 4 7 -3 9
H 8 8 0 0
I 1 9 -8 64
J 3 10 -7 49

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Uses:
• It is used for finding correlation coefficient if we are dealing with
qualitative characteristicswhich cannot be measured quantitatively
but can be arrangedserially.
• It can also be used where actual data are given.
• In case of extreme observations,Spearman’s formula is preferred to
Pearson’sformula.
L i m i t a ti o n s
• It is not applicable in the case of bivariate frequency distribution.

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Tied Correlation(CO1)
• For n >30, this formula should not be used unless the ranks are given,
since in the contrary case the calculations are quitetime-consuming.
TIED RANKS: If some of the individuals receive the same rankin a
rankingofmerit,theyaresaidtobetied.
•Let us suppose that m of the individuals, say, (k + 1)th, (k+2)th,...,
(k+m)th,aretied.
•Then each of these m individuals assigned a common rank,which is
arithmetic mean of the ranksk + 1,k+2,...,k+m.

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Question: Obtain the rank correlation co-efficient for the

following data:
68 64 75 50 64 80 75 40 55 64
62 58 68 45 81 60 68 48 50 70
Solution: Here marks are given so write down the ranks

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68 64 75 50 64 80 75 40 55 64 Total
62 58 68 45 81 60 68 48 50 70
Ranks in 4 6 2.5 9 6 1 2.5 10 8 6
Ranks in 5 7 3.5 10 1 6 3.5 9 8 2
-1 -1 -1 -1 5 -5 -1 1 0 4 0
1 1 1 1 25 25 1 1 0 16 72
64 3 times
68 2 times
75 2 times
09/28/2023 193

09/28/2023 194
Daily Quiz(CO1)
Q1. Find the rank correlation coefficient for the following data:
23 27 28 28 29 30 31 33 35 36
18 20 22 27 21 29 27 29 28 29

09/28/2023 195
Recap(CO1)
 Correlation
 Karl Pearson coefficient of correlation
 Rank Correlation
 Tied Rank

Topic objectives (CO1)
Regression:
• Explanation of the variation in the dependent variable, based
on the variation in independent variables and Predict the
values of the dependent variable.

Regression Analysis(CO1)
REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
• Regression measures the nature and extent of
correlation .Regression is the estimation or prediction of unknown
values of one variable from known values of another variable.
Difference between curve fitting and regression analysis: The only
fundamental difference, if any between problems of curve fitting and
regression is that in regression, any of the variables may be considered
as independent or dependent while in curve fitting, one variable cannot
be dependent.
Curve of regression and regression equation:
• If two variates are correlated i.e., there exists an association or
relationship between them, then the scatter diagram

Regression Analysis(CO1)
will be more or less concentrated round a curve. This curve is called
the curve of regression and the relationship is said to be expressed by
means of curvilinear regression.
• The mathematical equation of the regression curve is called
regression equation.
Some following types of regression will discuss here:

 Linear Regression
 Non- linear Regression
 Multiple linear Regression

Linear Regression(CO1)
 LINEAR REGRESSION:
• When the point of the scatter diagram concentrated round a
straight line, the regression is called linear and this straight
line is known as the line of regression.
• Regression will be called non-linear if there exists a
relationship other than a straight line between the variables
under consideration.

LINES OF REGRESSION: A line of regression is the straight line
which gives the best fit in the least square sense to the given
frequency.
LINES OF REGRESSION
Let ----.(1)
be the equation of regression line of
(2)
(3)
Solving (2) and (3) for ‘’ and ‘’ we get.
…..(4)

(5)
Eqt.(5) given
Hence line passes through point
Putting in equation ,we get
………(6)
Eqt.(6) is called regression line of is called the regression coefficient of
and is usually denoted by

Where is the regression coefficient of and is given by
Or where the terms have their usual meanings.

USE OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
A) In the field of a business this tool of statistical analysis is widely
used .Businessmen are interested in predicting future production,
Consumption ,investment, prices, profits and sales etc.
B) In the field of economic planning and sociological studies, projections
of population birth rates ,death and other similar variables are of great
use.

Where are mean values while
In eqt.(3),shifting the origin to, we get
Where is the coefficient of correlation are the standard deviations of

series respectively.

Regression Analysis Properties(CO1)
PROPERTIES OF REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS:
Property 1. Correlation coefficient is the geometric mean between the
regression coefficients.
Proof :The coefficients of regression are and .
G.M. between them =coefficient of correlation.
Property 2. If one of the regression coefficients is greater than unity,
the other must be less than unity.
Proof. The two regression coefficients are and .

Let 1,then
Since .
Similarly if
Property 3. Airthmetic mean of regression coefficient is greater than
the Correlation coefficient.
Proof. We have to prove that
r+r

which is true.
Property 4: Regression coefficients are independent of the origin but
not of scale.
Proof. Let
Similarly, ,
Thus and are both independent of a and b but not of

Property 5: The correlation coefficient and the two regression
coefficient have same sign.
Proof: Regression coefficient of
Regression coefficient of
Since and are both positive; and have same sign.
• ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES OF REGRESSION:

If is the acute angle between the two regression lines in the case of two
variables ,show that

where have their usual meanings.
Explain the significance of the formula where
Proof: Equations to the lines of regression of
and ()=
The slopes are and
tan

Since and are positive.

tan Where the two lines of regression are Perpendicular to each
other. Hence the estimated value of is the same for all values of and
vice versa.
When so that
Hence the lines of regression coincide and there is perfect correlation
between the two variates

Q. The equation of two regression lines, obtained in a correlation
analysis of 60 observations are:
What is the correlation
Coefficient ?Show that the ratio of coefficient of variability of is What
is the ratio of variance of
Solution: Regression line of
Regression line of

=……..(3)
=0.768….(4)
Multiply equations(3) and (4) we get
Dividing (3) by (4) we get

Taking square root, we get
=
Since the regression lines pass through the point( we have
1000
Solving the above equation ,we get =6, =1
Coefficient of variability of
Coefficient of variability of
Required ratio=

Non-Linear Regression(CO1)
 NON-LINEAR REGRESSION:
Let
Be a second degree parabolic curve of regression of on

Multiple Linear Regression(CO1)
 MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION:
Where the dependent variable is a function of two or more linear or
non linear independent variables. consider such a linear function as
Solving the above equations we get values of then we get linear

function is called the regression plan.

Q. Obtain a regression plane by using multiple linear regression
To fit the data given below.
1 2 3 4
12 18 24 30
0 1 2 3
Sol. Let
be determined by following equations.

Here Substitution yields,

84=
156=6a+20b+14c
Hence the required regression plane is


Daily Quiz(CO1)
Q1. Two lines of regression are given by and and =16.Calculate

(i) the mean of and
(ii) variance of
(iii) The correlation coefficient.

Q1. Fit a straight line trend by the method of least square to the following
data:
Year 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984
5 7 9 10 12 17
Production
Q2. From the following data calculate Karl Pearson's coefficient of skewness
Marks 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Less than
No. of 10 30 60 110 150 180 200
students
Q3. Write regression equations of X on Y and of Y on X for the following data -

X 1 2 3 4 5
Y 2 4 5 3 6
Q4. Fit a straight line trend by the method of least squares to the
following data: -
Year 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Sales of 7 10 12 14 17 24
T.V. sets
(in’000)

Topic Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL Video
Suggested Youtube/other Video Links:
https://youtu.be/wWenULjri40
https://youtu.be/mL9-WX7wLAo
https://youtu.be/nPsfqz9EljY
https://youtu.be/nqPS29IvnHk
https://youtu.be/aaQXMbpbNKw
https://youtu.be/wDXMYRPup0Y
https://youtu.be/m9a6rg0tNSM
https://youtu.be/Qy1YAKZDA7k
https://youtu.be/Qy1YAKZDA7k
https://youtu.be/s94k4H6AE54
https://youtu.be/lBB4stn3exM
https://youtu.be/0WejW9MiTGg
https://youtu.be/QAEZOhE13Wg
https://youtu.be/ddYNq1TxtM0
https://youtu.be/YciBHHeswBM
https://youtu.be/VCJdg7YBbAQ
https://youtu.be/VCJdg7YBbAQ
https://youtu.be/yhzJxftDgms

MCQ (CO1)
Q1. Which one is true
i. Correlation helps to determine the validity of a test.
ii. Correlation helps to determine the reliability of a test.
iii. Correlation indicates the nature of the relationship between two
variables.
iv. All of the above
Q2. Which one is true

MCQ (CO1)
Q3. Sum of squares of items 2430, mean is 7 N=12, find the variance.
i. 176.5
ii. 12.38
iii. 153.26
iv. 14
Q4. Calculate the standard variation of the following
9, 8, 6,5,8,6
v. 2
vi. 3
vii. 1.414
viii. 2.414

Glossary (CO1)
Q 1. An in complete distribution is given below:

x 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
f 12 30 X 65 Y 25 18
Given that median value is 46 and N=229
i. X
ii. Y
iii. Mean
iv. Mode
Pick the correct option from glossary
a. 45.82
b. 33.5
c. 46.07
d. 45
Glossary (CO1)
Q2. For the following:
i. Equation of line y on x
ii. Regression coefficient x on y
iii. Correlation coefficient
iv. Equation of line x on y
Pick the correct option from glossary
a. r(x,y)

(Sessional + University) Question Paper
Microsoft Word Microsoft Word

Microsoft Word Document Document
Document
First Second Third Sessional

Sessional Sessional Test Test Paper
Test Paper Paper

Expected Questions for UniversityExam(CO1)
Q1. Obtain normal equation by method of least square to the curve .Fit
it to the following data:
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 1 2
21 11 7 6 5 6
Q2. Find the multiple linear regressions of on and from the data
relating to three variables:
7 12 17 20
4 7 9 12
1 2 5 8
Q3. If is the angle between the two line of regression.then express in
terms of correlation coefficient. Explain the significance when and
Q4. Two lines of regression are given by and and =16.Calculate-(i) the
mean of and (ii) S.D. of (iii) the correlation coefficient.
•

Expected Questions for University Exam
Q5. An incomplete distribution of families according to their

expenditure per week is given below. The median and mode for
the distribution are Rs 25 and Rs 24 respectively. Calculate the
missing frequencies.
Expenditure 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
No. of families 14 ? 27 ? 15
Q6. The first four moments of a distribution about 2 are 1,2.5,5.5

and 16 respectively.Calculate the four moments about mean and
about the origin.

Recap Unit 1
We discussed the following topics:
 Measures of central tendency – mean, median, mode
 Moment
 Skewness
 Kurtosis
 Curve fitting
 Least squares principles of curve fitting
 Correlation
 Regression analysis

References
Text Books
• Erwin Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics,
9thEdition, John Wiley & Sons, 2006.
• P. G. Hoel, S. C. Port and C. J. Stone, Introduction to

Probability Theory, Universal Book Stall, 2003(Reprint).
• S. Ross: A First Course in Probability, 6th Ed., Pearson

Education India, 2002.
• W. Feller, An Introduction to Probability Theory and its

Applications, Vol. 1, 3rd Ed., Wiley, 1968.
References
Reference Books
• B.S. Grewal, Higher Engineering Mathematics, Khanna
Publishers, 35th Edition, 2000. 2.T.Veerarajan : Engineering
Mathematics (for semester III), Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
• R.K. Jain and S.R.K. Iyenger: Advance Engineering

Mathematics; Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi.
• J.N. Kapur: Mathematical Statistics; S. Chand & Sons Company

Limited, New Delhi.
• D.N.Elhance,V. Elhance & B.M. Aggarwal: Fundamentals of
Statistics; Kitab Mahal Distributers, New Delhi.

Thank You

Stat. & Prob-Unit-I

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Noida Institute of Engineering and

Technology, Greater Noida

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit I 1

09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I 2

09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I 3

(24) MCQ(End of Unit).

09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I 4

Name : Dr. Anil Agarwal

WEEKS COMPULSORY INDUCTION PROGRAM

12 MOOCs** (For B.Tech.

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Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit -I

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*1= Low *2= Medium *3= High

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09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I 13

CO PSO 1 PSO 2 PSO 3

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Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Branch Semester Sections No. of No. % Passed

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

 Knowledge of Maths -I of B.Tech.

09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I 18

• In first four modules, we will discuss Statistics and probability.

09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I 19

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Measures of central tendency:

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09/28/2023 Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I 24

 In case of the frequencydistributionxi|fi,i=1,2,...,n,where

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Solution: i=10,D=x-A, A=35,

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Properties of Arithmetic Mean:

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Solution: Arithmetic mean =25.404

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Here N =120, The cumulative frequency just greater than is 65 and

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Solution: The median wage is Rs. 4,675.

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Solution: Method of Grouping :

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Since the item 10 occurs maximum number of times i.e.5times,hence

Dr. Anil Agarwal Unit-I

Solution: Here the greatest frequency 32 lies in the class 16-20.Hence

1= Low 2= Medium *3= High