ATDCHB2

Learning Unit 4: Nozzles

1
Nozzle
A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity
of a fluid at the expense of pressure.
In a nozzle the fluid flows through a varying
cross sectional area in which the velocity of
fluid increases and pressure drops in the
direction of flow.
The fluid enters the variable cross section area
duct with low velocity and high pressure and
leaves it with high velocity and low pressure.
During flow through a nozzle, enthalpy drop
and heat drop in expansion is spent in
increasing the velocity of fluid.
Nozzles are generally used in turbines, jet
engines, rockets and injectors etc.

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Nozzles (cont.)

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Diffuser
A diffuser is a device that increases pressure of a fluid by slowing it
down.

Similar to a nozzle, this duct with variable cross-section area will be called
a diffuser if the fluid gets decelerated, causing a rise in pressure along
the direction of flow.

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Momentum and Continuity Equations

Momentum transfer across the control volume may be accounted for as:

Newton’s Law states that resultant force, F acting on the control volume
equals difference between the rates of momentum leaving and entering
the control volume accompanying mass flow
Momentum equation says:
At steady state, i.e. continuity equation is satisfied,
Then:
Resultant force, F includes forces due to pressure acting at inlet and exit,
forces acting on the portion of the boundary through which there is no
mass flow and force due to gravity

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 Nozzle
Shape
Consider a stream of fluid at P1, H1 and with low velocity C1.
It is required to find the shape of duct which will cause the fluid to
accelerate to a high velocity as the pressure falls along the duct.
It is assumed that heat loss from the duct is negligible (i.e. adiabatic flow,
Q = 0 J) and no work is done on or by the fluid (i.e. W = 0 J)
Applying steady flow energy balance (EB) between point 1 and any other
point:

Making C subject of formula:

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 Nozzle Shape
(cont.)
If area is A, specific volume is v, then mass
flow rate:
Area per unit mass flowrate becomes:

Substituting for C gives:

Area can be plotted against C, v and H (as

shown in figure)
When v increases less rapidly than C, area
decreases and when v increases more
rapidly than C, area increases

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 Nozzle Shape (cont.)
• The result is a convergent-divergent nozzle:

Section of minimum area is called

the throat of the nozzle.
Velocity operating at designated
pressure ratio is equal to velocity of
sound at throat conditions.

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 Nozzle Shape
(cont.)
 Flow up to the throat is
subsonic and flow after
throat is supersonic (as
shown figure).
 Nozzles for liquids are
always convergent even at
high exit velocities.

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 Critical Pressure Ratio
Critical pressure ratio is the ratio of pressure at section where sonic
velocity is attained to inlet pressure of a nozzle.
Critical pressure for an ideal gas:

For air with  = 1.4, critical pressure when P1 is 10 bar becomes:

bar

10
 Critical Temperature
Critical temperature ratio is ratio of temperature at section where sonic
velocity is attained to inlet temperature of a nozzle

Critical temperature for an ideal gas:

For air with  = 1.4, critical temperature:

11
Critical Specific Volume and Critical Velocity

Using the same procedure,

Critical specific volume is given by:

Where,
M is molecular weight in kg/mol,
R is universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol-K)

Also, critical velocity is given by:

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Exit Specific Volume and Exit Velocity
Considering entry to a nozzle as 1 and exit as 2, exit parameters can be
determined as,
Exit specific volume is given by:
And exit velocity is given by:

Usually entry speed is negligible:

where, H1 and H2 are enthalpies in J/kg at sections 1 and 2

Mass flow per unit area at exit becomes:
Or

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 Exampl
e
Air at 8.6 bar and 190oC expands at the rate of 4.5 kg/s through a
convergent-divergent nozzle into a space at 1.03 bar. Assuming that
the inlet velocity is negligible, calculate the throat and the exit cross-
sectional areas of the nozzle. For air, use  = 1.4 and M[air] = 29
g/mol. Diagram is shown below:

(Click here for solution)

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 Maximum mass flow rate
For a convergent nozzle where exit pressure (back
pressure) is varied while inlet pressure is kept
constant,
When back pressure (Pb) is equal to inlet pressure
(P1), no fluid can flow through the nozzle (as shown
below).
Reducing Pb, increases mass flow rate through
nozzle, enthalpy drops and velocity increases.
A point is reached where no further change in Pb will
result in an increase in mass flow rate, called critical
point (back pressure = critical pressure; Pb = Pc).
Here exit velocity is sonic and mass flow rate is
maximum. Under these conditions flow is said to be
choked flow or critical flow.

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 Example
A fluid at 6.9 bar and 93oC enters a convergent nozzle
with negligible velocity and expands isentropically into
a space at 3.6 bar. Calculate the mass flowrate per
unit exit area:
i. When the fluid is helium (Cp = 5.19 kJ/kg-K)
ii. When the fluid is ethane (Cp = 1.88 kJ/kg-K)
Assume that both helium and ethane are ideal gases
and molecular weights are 4 and 30 kg/kmol,
respectively. (Click here for solution)

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Solution
For Helium,
First calculate critical pressure to check if nozzle is choked:
kJ/kg-K

bar
Hence, Pb>Pc  nozzle is not choked

(Solution continues here)

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 Solution (cont.)
For an ideal gas, exit temperature T2 is given by:

K

Exit specific volume v2 is given by: m3/kg

Exit velocity is given by:

m/s

Mass flowrate per unit area: kg/s-m2

(Solution continues here)

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 Solution (cont.)
Using same procedure for Ethane,
First calculate critical pressure to check if nozzle is
choked
kJ/kg-K


bar
Hence, Pb<Pc  nozzle is choked

(Solution continues here)

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Solution (cont.)
Critical temperature (Tc = T2) is given by:

Critical specific volume (vc = v2) is given by:

m3/kg

Critical velocity (Cc = C2) is given by:

m/s

Mass flow per unit area: kg/s-m2

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 Nozzles off the Design Pressure
Ratio
When back pressure (Pb) is below design pressure (Pd), nozzle is said to
under-expand.
In this case, fluid expands to design pressure in nozzle and then expands
violently and irreversibly down to Pb on leaving nozzle.
When back pressure (Pb) is above design pressure (Pd), nozzle is said to
over-expand.
In overexpansion in a convergent nozzle, exit pressure is greater than
critical pressure and the effect is to reduce mass flowrate through nozzle.
In overexpansion in a convergent-divergent nozzle, there is always
expansion followed by re-compression.

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Overexpansion in a
Convergent Nozzle
Pressure variations are shown (in Figure).
Assuming that Pd = PC:
When Pb > Pc nozzle is overexpanding as
shown by (a) and mass flow is below
maximum mass flow.
When Pb = Pc nozzle is choked as shown
by (b) and mass flow is maximum mass
flow.
When Pb < Pc expansion in nozzle still
follow graph (b) but there is additional
expansion from Pc down to Pb outside
nozzle. Pressure oscillates violently and a
shockwave is produced.

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Overexpansion in a Convergent-
Divergent nozzle
Pressure variations are shown (in Figure)
Considering conditions at the throat and
assuming that Pd = PC:
When Pt > Pc mass flow through the nozzle is
very low and divergent portion of nozzle acts
as diffuser as shown by line (a). Nozzle is like
a venturimeter.
When Pb > Pc fluid expands from P1 down to Q
and is re-compressed along line (b) which is
an irreversible compression through a
shockwave.
When Pb < Pc there is expansion outside the
nozzle as shown by line (c).

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Nozzle Efficiency
Due to friction between the fluid and the walls of
the nozzle and to friction within the fluid itself,
expansion process is irreversible but still
approximately adiabatic.

Typical expansions between P1 and P2 in a

nozzle for a gas/vapour are shown on T-S
diagrams (as shown on figures)

• Step 1-2s is the ideal expansion

• Step 1-2 is the actual expansion

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Nozzle Efficiency (cont.)
 Nozzle efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy
drop between same pressure:

 For an ideal gas:

 If the actual velocity at exit from nozzle is C 2and velocity at exit when flow is isentropic
is C2s, then using steady-flow energy equation:
 and


 Then nozzle efficiency becomes:

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Nozzle Efficiency (cont.)

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Example
Gases expand in a propulsion nozzle from 3.5 bar and 425 oC down to a back
pressure of 0.97 bar, at a rate of 18 kg/s.
Taking a coefficient of discharge of 0.99 and a nozzle efficiency of 0.94, calculate
the required throat and exit areas of the nozzle.
For the gases, take  = 1.333 and Cp = 1.11 kJ/kg-K. Assume that the inlet velocity
is negligible.

(Click here for solution)

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Solution
Critical pressure is given by:
bar

• Since Pc> P2 the nozzle is choking and a convergent-divergent nozzle is required.

• Critical temperature is given by:

K

• Gas constant is given by: J/kg-K

• Critical specific volume (vc) is given by: m3/kg

(Solution continues here)

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 Solution (cont.)
Critical velocity (Cc) is given by: m/s

Alternatively,
m/s

Mass flowrate for isentropic flow:  kg/s

m2

Therefore, throat area is 0.0339 m2

(Solution continues here)

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Solution (cont.)
For an isentropic expansion from the inlet conditions down
to the back pressure, T2 is given by:

K

Isentropic expansion is shown on a T-S diagram.

Line 1-c-2s represent isentropic expansion and line 1-2
represents actual expansion


K

(Solution continues here)

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Solution (cont.)
Exit specific volume v2 is given by: m3/kg

Exit velocity is given by:

m/s

Area at exit: m2

Therefore, exit area is 0.0422 m2

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 Steam Nozzle
Properties of steam can be obtained from steam tables.

To determine the critical pressure, critical velocity and maximum mass

flowrate assume steam follows an isentropic relationship i.e.
.

For dry saturated steam  = 1.135 and for superheated steam  = 1.3

The following formulae are applicable:

Between points 1 and 2:

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Example
Estimate the critical pressure and the throat area per unit mass
flowrate of a convergent-divergent nozzle expanding steam from 10
bar, dry saturated, down to atmospheric pressure of 1 bar.
Assume that the inlet velocity is negligible and that the expansion is
isentropic.

(Click here for solution)

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